{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T19:59:35Z","timestamp":1784577575155,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,4]],"date-time":"2023-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672790400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"EPSRC Impact Acceleration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/R511742\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/R511742\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Technological advancements are enabling new applications within biomedical engineering. As a connection point between the outer environment and the human system, the oral cavity offers unique opportunities for sensing technologies. This paper systematically reviews the performance of measurement systems tested in the human oral cavity. Performance was defined by metrics related to accuracy and agreement estimation. A comprehensive search identifying human studies that reported on the accuracy or agreement of intraoral sensors found 85 research papers. Most of the literature (62%) was in dentistry, followed by neurology (21%), and physical medicine and rehabilitation (12%). The remaining papers were on internal medicine, obstetrics, and aerospace medicine. Most of the studies applied force or pressure sensors (32%), while optical and image sensors were applied most widely across fields. The main challenges for future adoption include the lack of large human trials, the maturity of emerging technologies (e.g., biochemical sensors), and the absence of standardization of evaluation in specific fields. New research should aim to employ robust performance metrics to evaluate their systems and incorporate real-world evidence as part of the evaluation process. Oral cavity sensors offer the potential for applications in healthcare and wellbeing, but for many technologies, more research is needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020588","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]],"date-time":"2023-01-05T02:28:53Z","timestamp":1672885733000},"page":"588","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Performance of Oral Cavity Sensors: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0347-4581","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"de Almeida e Bueno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Man Ting","family":"Kwong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guy\u2019s and St. Thomas\u2019 NHS Foundation Trust, St. Thomas\u2019 Hospital, Westminster Bridge Rd., London SE1 7EH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7306-2630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeroen H. M.","family":"Bergmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neuman, M.R. (2018). Physical Sensors for Biomedical Applications, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781351075633"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Jones, D.P. (2010). Biomedical Sensors, Momentum Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.8b00276","article-title":"A Future with Ubiquitous Sensing and Intelligent Systems","volume":"3","author":"Paulovich","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2017.06.005","article-title":"Food-Saliva Interactions: Mechanisms and Implications","volume":"66","author":"Mosca","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Fuhrman, B.P., and Zimmerman, J.J.B.T.-P.C.C. (2011). Chapter 35\u2014Structure and Development of the Upper Respiratory System in Infants and Children. Pediatric Critical Care, Mosby."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDowell, J. (2010). Encyclopedia of Human Body Systems, Greenwood.","DOI":"10.5040\/9798400667176"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garrett, J.R., Ekstr\u00f6m, J., Anderson, L.C., and Sharpe, P.T. (1998). Glandular Mechanisms of Salivary Secretion, S. Karger Publishers. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1159\/isbn.978-3-318-00266-9"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487742","DOI":"10.1080\/20002297.2018.1487742","article-title":"Citrullination as a Plausible Link to Periodontitis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Atherosclerosis and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"10","author":"Olsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Oral Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39491","article-title":"Antibodies to Porphyromonas Gingivalis Indicate Interaction Between Oral Infection, Smoking, and Risk Genes in Rheumatoid Arthritis Etiology","volume":"68","author":"Kharlamova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2010.153767","article-title":"Diagnostic Potential of Saliva: Current State and Future Applications","volume":"57","author":"Pfaffe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/962903","article-title":"Saliva-Based Biosensors: Noninvasive Monitoring Tool for Clinical Diagnostics","volume":"2014","author":"Malon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201200349","article-title":"Wearable Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors: A Review","volume":"25","author":"Windmiller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1177\/10454411930040031201","article-title":"Sialochemistry: A Diagnostic Tool?","volume":"4","author":"Aguirre","year":"1993","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CS00595H","article-title":"Hydrogel Bioelectronics","volume":"48","author":"Yuk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1246\/bcsj.20180064","article-title":"Soft, Wet and Ionic Microelectrode Systems","volume":"91","author":"Nishizawa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-017-0001-3","article-title":"Stretchable and Waterproof Elastomer-Coated Organic Photovoltaics for Washable Electronic Textile Applications","volume":"2","author":"Jinno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4463","article-title":"Tough Bonding of Hydrogels to Diverse Non-Porous Surfaces","volume":"15","author":"Yuk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201600083","article-title":"Cavitas Sensors: Contact Lens Type Sensors & Mouthguard Sensors","volume":"28","author":"Mitsubayashi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3341","DOI":"10.1039\/C9TB02352F","article-title":"Emerging Intraoral Biosensors","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Becker, K.M., and Whyte, J.J. (2006). Clinical Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Principles and Case Studies, Humana Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-004-1"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"North, B. (2021, April 16). The Growing Role of Human Factors and Usability Engineering for Medical Devices. What\u2019s Required in the New Regulatory Landscape. Available online: http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-GB\/Medical-devices\/whitepapers\/The growing role of human factors and usability engineering for medical devices.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Branaghan, R.J., O\u2019Brian, J.S., Hildebrand, E.A., and Foster, L.B. (2021). Humanizing Healthcare\u2014Human Factors for Medical Device Design, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-64433-8"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"b2535","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.b2535","article-title":"Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement","volume":"339","author":"Moher","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"b2700","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.b2700","article-title":"The PRISMA Statement for Reporting Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of Studies That Evaluate Healthcare Interventions: Explanation and Elaboration","volume":"339","author":"Liberati","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"62","article-title":"Kappa Coefficient: A Popular Measure of Rater Agreement","volume":"27","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Shanghai Arch Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.4103\/picr.PICR_123_17","article-title":"Common Pitfalls in Statistical Analysis: Measures of Agreement","volume":"8","author":"Ranganathan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Perspect. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2010.01.003","article-title":"Method Agreement Analysis: A Review of Correct Methodology","volume":"73","author":"Watson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2021, March 14). Specialist Unit for Review Evidence Questions to Assist with the Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Studies. Available online: http:\/\/www.cardiff.ac.uk\/specialist-unit-for-review-evidence\/resources\/critical-appraisal-%0Ahttp:\/\/www.cardiff.ac.uk\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0006\/212766\/SURE_RCTs-and-other-experimental-studies_Checklist_2015-update.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-6-9","article-title":"Evaluation of QUADAS, a Tool for the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies","volume":"6","author":"Whiting","year":"2006","journal-title":"BMC Med. Res. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, April 16). WMA Declaration of Helsinki\u2013Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. Available online: https:\/\/www.wma.net\/policies-post\/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects\/."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2021, April 16). American Medical Association FREIDA\u2019s Specialty Guide\u2014American Medical Association. Available online: https:\/\/freida.ama-assn.org\/specialty."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2021, April 16). Dental Specialties\u2014American Dental Association. Available online: https:\/\/www.ada.org\/en\/ncrdscb\/dental-specialties."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2008.11.009","article-title":"Effect of Face Form on Maximal Molar Bite Force with Natural Dentition","volume":"54","author":"Bonakdarchian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0305-182X.2003.01179.x","article-title":"Single Tooth Bite Forces in Healthy Young Adults","volume":"31","author":"Ferrario","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Oral. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9969(65)90013-0","article-title":"Measurement of Lateral Muscle Forces on the Dental Arches","volume":"10","author":"Lear","year":"1965","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2842.1984.tb00549.x","article-title":"Occlusal Forces in Prosthetically Restored Dentitions: A Methodological Study","volume":"11","author":"Lundgren","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"249","article-title":"Lip Adaptation to Simulated Dental Arch Expansion. Part 1: Reliability and Precision of Two Lip Pressure Measurement Mechanisms","volume":"66","author":"Shellhart","year":"1996","journal-title":"Angle Orthod."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1067\/mpr.2002.129062","article-title":"Maximum Clenching Force of Patients with Moderate Loss of Posterior Tooth Support: A Pilot Study","volume":"88","author":"Gibbs","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3128246","article-title":"An Intraoral Non-Occlusal MEMS Sensor for Bruxism Detection","volume":"22","author":"Cogan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2616","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2020.2966954","article-title":"A System for Characterizing Intraoperative Force Distribution during Operative Laryngoscopy","volume":"67","author":"Ponukumati","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.3109\/03091907709160612","article-title":"Piezoelectric Transducers for Oral Force Monitoring","volume":"1","author":"Mansour","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2003\/112)","article-title":"Comparison of Transducers and Intraoral Placement Options for Measuring Lingua-Palatal Contact Pressure during Speech","volume":"46","author":"Searl","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9969(68)90129-5","article-title":"A Technique for the Measurement of Soft Tissue Pressures Acting upon Teeth","volume":"13","author":"Luffingham","year":"1968","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1007\/s00455-016-9697-7","article-title":"A Study of Healthy Adults\u2019 Oro-Lingual Effort During Swallowing Using OroPress, A New Portable Wireless Measurement Tool","volume":"31","author":"Manning","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dysphagia"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-015-0024-6","article-title":"OroPress a New Wireless Tool for Measuring Oro-Lingual Pressures: A Pilot Study in Healthy Adults","volume":"12","author":"McCormack","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/S0109-5641(02)00020-9","article-title":"A Novel Sensor for Bite Force Determinations","volume":"19","author":"Fernandes","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dent. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levartovsky, S., Peleg, G., Matalon, S., Tsesis, I., and Rosen, E. (2022). Maximal Bite Force Measured via Digital Bite Force Transducer in Subjects with or without Dental Implants\u2014A Pilot Study. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12031544"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2006.06.003","article-title":"The Development of a Diagnostic Instrument for the Measurement of Mechanical Allodynia","volume":"33","author":"Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/joor.12223","article-title":"A Sleep Bruxism Detection System Based on Sensors in a Splint\u2014Pilot Clinical Data","volume":"42","author":"Mcauliffe","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iwasaki, M., Maeda, I., Kokubo, Y., Tanaka, Y., Ueno, T., Ohara, Y., Motokawa, K., Hayakawa, M., Shirobe, M., and Edahiro, A. (2022). Standard Values and Concurrent Validity of a Newly Developed Occlusal Force-Measuring Device among Community-Dwelling Older Adults: The Otassha Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19095588"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janani, K., Palanivelu, A., and Sandhya, R. (2020). Diagnostic Accuracy of Dental Pulse Oximeter with Customized Sensor Holder, Thermal Test and Electric Pulp Test for the Evaluation of Pulp Vitality: An In Vivo Study. Braz. Dent. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.14295\/bds.2020.v23i1.1805"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3333","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_73_20","article-title":"Efficiency of New Custom-Made Pulse Oximeter Sensor Holder in Assessment of Actual Pulp Status","volume":"9","author":"Janani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-9657.2011.00976.x","article-title":"Assessment of Pulp Blood Flow in Primary and Permanent Teeth Using Pulse Oximetry","volume":"27","author":"Pozzobon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dent. Traumatol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2006.12.003","article-title":"Evaluation of Efficacy of a New Custom-Made Pulse Oximeter Dental Probe in Comparison With the Electrical and Thermal Tests for Assessing Pulp Vitality","volume":"33","author":"Gopikrishna","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020922","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4030134","article-title":"Design an Oral Photoplethysmogram for Deriving Peripheral Oxygen Saturation Level","volume":"9","author":"Soltanzadeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Devices Trans. ASME"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190063","DOI":"10.1259\/dmfr.20190063","article-title":"A Comparative Study on Image Quality of Two Digital Intraoral Sensors","volume":"48","author":"Aziman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dentomaxillofacial Radiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sdentj.2019.08.007","article-title":"In Vivo Performance of Near-Infrared Light Transillumination for Dentine Proximal Caries Detection in Permanent Teeth","volume":"32","author":"Aktan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Saudi Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/7031086","article-title":"Diagnostic Accuracy of Periapical Radiography in Detection and Measurement of the External Root Resorption in Primary Molars: A Single-Blind Prospective Clinical Study","volume":"2022","author":"Taravati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v10.i2.437","article-title":"Analysis of Photostimulable Phosphor Image Plate Artifacts and Their Prevalence","volume":"10","author":"Elkhateeb","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Cases"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"110","article-title":"Correlation between Digital Intra-Oral System with Pocket Sounding in Detection of Bone Defects","volume":"5","author":"Moghadam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Dent. Spec."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Natto, Z.S., Olwi, A., and Abduljawad, F. (2022). A Comparison of the Horizontal and Vertical Bitewing Images in Detecting Approximal Caries and Interdental Bone Loss in Posterior Teeth: A Diagnostic Accuracy Randomized Cross over Clinical Trial. J. Dent. Sci., in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jds.2022.08.006"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.3357\/AMHP.4510.2016","article-title":"Near-Infrared Spectra in Buccal Tissue as a Marker for Detection of Hypoxia","volume":"87","author":"Amini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aerosp. Med. Hum. Perform"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2021.103861","article-title":"Reflected Near-Infrared Light versus Bite-Wing Radiography for the Detection of Proximal Caries: A Multicenter Prospective Clinical Study Conducted in Private Practices","volume":"116","author":"Metzger","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0000000000001696","article-title":"Resonance Raman Spectroscopy Derived Tissue Hemoglobin Oxygen Saturation in Critically Ill and Injured Patients","volume":"56","author":"Tiba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2026201119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2026201119","article-title":"Portable, Handheld, and Affordable Blood Perfusion Imager for Screening of Subsurface Cancer in Resource-Limited Settings","volume":"119","author":"Bhowmik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"8553","article-title":"An Intraoral Camera for Supporting Assistive Devices","volume":"21","author":"Mir","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/clr.12057","article-title":"The Prognostic Accuracy of Resonance Frequency Analysis in Predicting Failure Risk of Immediately Restored Implants","volume":"25","author":"Atieh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Oral Implant. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"e801","article-title":"Resonance Frequency Analysis-Reliability in Third Generation Instruments: Osstell Mentor","volume":"17","author":"Albertini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Oral Patol. Oral Cir. Bucal"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1097\/ID.0000000000000072","article-title":"Comparative Analysis of 2 Resonance Frequency Measurement Devices: Osstell Mentor and Osstell ISQ","volume":"23","author":"Jaramillo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Implant Dent."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"e877","article-title":"Assessment of Osstell Isq\u2019s Reliability for Implant Stability Measurement: A Cross-Sectional Clinical Study","volume":"18","author":"Bullon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Oral Patol. Oral Cir. Bucal"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0722.2012.00959.x","article-title":"Resonance Frequency Analysis: A New Diagnostic Tool for Dental Ankylosis","volume":"120","author":"Bertl","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1109\/10.102803","article-title":"An Application of Magnet and Magnetic Sensor: Measurement System for Tooth Movement","volume":"37","author":"Yamada","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1109\/10.914799","article-title":"Development of a Magnetic Sensing Device for Tooth Displacement under Orthodontic Forces","volume":"48","author":"Yoshida","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S1350-4533(00)00044-8","article-title":"A New Method for Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of Tooth Displacement under the Application of Orthodontic Forces Using Magnetic Sensors","volume":"22","author":"Yoshida","year":"2000","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21565","DOI":"10.3390\/s141121565","article-title":"An Arch-Shaped Intraoral Tongue Drive System with Built-in Tongue-Computer Interfacing SoC","volume":"14","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-020-02688-6","article-title":"Low-Profile Electromagnetic Field Sensors in the Measurement and Modelling of Three-Dimensional Jaw Kinematics and Occlusal Loading","volume":"49","author":"Woodford","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"i2","article-title":"Accuracy of Thermosensitive Microsensors Intended to Monitor Patient Use of Removable Oral Appliances","volume":"84","author":"Kirshenblatt","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Can. Dent. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/s41405-022-00114-8","article-title":"Determining the Performance of a Temperature Sensor Embedded into a Mouthguard","volume":"8","author":"Milnthorpe","year":"2022","journal-title":"BDJ Open"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1080\/14653125.2017.1365220","article-title":"How Accurate Are TheraMon\u00ae Microsensors at Measuring Intraoral Wear-Time? Recorded vs. Actual Wear Times in Five Volunteers","volume":"44","author":"Brierley","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Orthod."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1111\/joor.12584","article-title":"Reliability of an Adherence Monitoring Sensor Embedded in an Oral Appliance Used for Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnoea","volume":"45","author":"Gjerde","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Oral. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-018-02115-x","article-title":"Validity of Skin, Oral and Tympanic Temperatures During Exercise in the Heat: Effects of Wind and Sweat","volume":"47","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1552-6909.2008.00302.x","article-title":"Accuracy of Different Temperature Devices in the Postpartum Population","volume":"38","author":"Hutton","year":"2009","journal-title":"JOGNN J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12870","DOI":"10.1111\/eos.12870","article-title":"In Vivo Real-time Temperature Measurement on the Surface of Intact and Gold-restored Teeth during Consumption of Hot and Cold Drinks","volume":"130","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1177\/1099800404268917","article-title":"Temperature Measurement in Critical Care Adults: A Comparison of Thermometry and Measurement Routes","volume":"6","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Res. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2599","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-020-02654-2","article-title":"On-Field Performance of an Instrumented Mouthguard for Detecting Head Impacts in American Football","volume":"48","author":"Gabler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2613","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-020-02647-1","article-title":"A Two-Phased Approach to Quantifying Head Impact Sensor Accuracy: In-Laboratory and On-Field Assessments","volume":"48","author":"Kieffer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-015-1423-3","article-title":"In Vivo Evaluation of Wearable Head Impact Sensors","volume":"44","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-019-02313-1","article-title":"Development, Validation and Pilot Field Deployment of a Custom Mouthpiece for Head Impact Measurement","volume":"47","author":"Rich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0199238","article-title":"Comparison of Video-Based and Sensor-Based Head Impact Exposure","volume":"13","author":"Kuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546514560876","article-title":"Instrumented Mouthguard Acceleration Analyses for Head Impacts in Amateur Rugby Union Players over a Season of Matches","volume":"43","author":"King","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725245","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2021.725245","article-title":"Development of a Machine-Learning-Based Classifier for the Identification of Head and Body Impacts in Elite Level Australian Rules Football Players","volume":"3","author":"Goodin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Sport. Act. Living"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056005","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.27.5.056005","article-title":"Photoacoustic Imaging of Posterior Periodontal Pocket Using a Commercial Hockey-Stick Transducer","volume":"27","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S1010-5182(05)80174-X","article-title":"Assessment of Tumorous Mandibular Involvement by Transcutaneous Ultrasound and Flexible Endosonography","volume":"21","author":"Heppt","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Cranio-Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-011-0533-z","article-title":"Intraoral Ultrasonography: Development of a Specific High-Frequency Probe and Clinical Pilot Study","volume":"16","author":"Salmon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Oral Investig."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tripleo.2007.01.014","article-title":"Sonography of Periimplant Buccal Bone Defects in Periodontitis Patients: A Pilot Study","volume":"105","author":"Bertram","year":"2008","journal-title":"Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. Endodontol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijom.2013.12.009","article-title":"Preoperative Evaluation of Oral Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma with Intraoral Ultrasound and Magnetic Resonance Imaging\u2014Comparison with Histopathological Tumour Thickness and Accuracy in Guiding Patient Management","volume":"43","author":"Yesuratnam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral. Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/coa.12088","article-title":"Randomized Trial Comparing Intraoral Ultrasound to Landmark-Based Needle Aspiration in Patients with Suspected Peritonsillar Abscess","volume":"38","author":"Costantino","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2011.2169672","article-title":"Tip of the Tongue Selectivity and Motor Learning in the Palatal Area","volume":"59","author":"Caltenco","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2013.853637","article-title":"The Impact of Function Location on Typing and Pointing Tasks With an Intraoral Tongue-Computer Interface","volume":"30","author":"Caltenco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"1043","article-title":"A High-Resolution Tongue-Based Joystick to Enable Robot Control for Individuals with Severe Disabilities","volume":"2019","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Conf. Rehabil. Robot."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2094","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2017.2706524","article-title":"Error-Free Text Typing Performance of an Inductive Intra-Oral Tongue Computer Interface for Severely Disabled Individuals","volume":"25","author":"Bentsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1109\/OJEMB.2021.3117871","article-title":"A Bioimpedance-Based Device to Assess the Volume Conduction Properties of the Tongue in Neurological Disorders Affecting Bulbar Function","volume":"2","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Eng. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.27479","article-title":"Pilot Study of a Novel Transmembranous Electromyography Device for Assessment of Oral Cavity and Oropharyngeal Muscles","volume":"65","author":"Menon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2022.3156398","article-title":"Palatal Electrotactile Display Outperforms Visual Display in Tongue Motor Learning","volume":"30","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castillo, Y., Blanco-Almazan, D., Whitney, J., Mersky, B., and Jane, R. (2017, January 11\u201315). Characterization of a Tooth Microphone Coupled to an Oral Appliance Device: A New System for Monitoring OSA Patients. Proceedings of the 2017 39th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Jeju Island, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2017.8037130"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s12283-021-00346-1","article-title":"Applying Ubiquitous Sensing to Estimate Perceived Exertion Based on Cardiorespiratory Features","volume":"24","author":"Kwong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sport. Eng."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"313","article-title":"A Preliminary Report on Continuous Recording of Salivary PH Using Telemetry in an Edentulous Patient","volume":"12","author":"Watanabe","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Prosthodont."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1097\/ID.0b013e31826918f1","article-title":"Implant Primary Stability Determined by Resonance Frequency Analysis: Correlation With Insertion Torque, Histologic Bone Volume, and Torsional Stability at 6 Weeks","volume":"21","author":"Makary","year":"2012","journal-title":"Implant Dent."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3272958","article-title":"The Reliability of a New Device for Measuring the Maximum Bite Force","volume":"2022","author":"Patil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3913(76)90003-2","article-title":"A Method of Measuring Pressures against Tissues Supporting Functioning Complete Dentures","volume":"35","author":"Kelsey","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjoms.2021.07.007","article-title":"Analysis of Maximum Bite Force and Chewing Efficiency in Unilateral Temporomandibular Joint Ankylosis Cases Treated with Buccal Fat Pad Interpositional Arthroplasty","volume":"60","author":"Mokhtar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2005.08.007","article-title":"Reproducibility of Surface EMG Variables in Isometric Sub-Maximal Contractions of Jaw Elevator Muscles","volume":"16","author":"Castroflorio","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-263X.2010.01098.x","article-title":"Bite Force Measurement in Children with Primary Dentition","volume":"21","author":"Mountain","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2842.1988.tb00179.x","article-title":"Lateral Forces Exerted on the Abutment Tooth of Complete Mandibular Overdentures","volume":"15","author":"Ogata","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"61","article-title":"Pressure Exerted on Teeth by the Lips and Cheeks","volume":"19","author":"Luffingham","year":"1968","journal-title":"D. Pract."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1007\/s00455-014-9593-y","article-title":"Neural Network Pattern Recognition of Lingual\u2013Palatal Pressure for Automated Detection of Swallow","volume":"30","author":"Hadley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dysphagia"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1159\/000315140","article-title":"Relationship between Tongue Pressure and Dysphagia in Stroke Patients","volume":"64","author":"Konaka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1007\/s00455-021-10381-6","article-title":"Healthy Women and Men Do Not Show Differences in Tongue Strength and Regular Effort Saliva Swallows as Assessed by Piezo-Resistive Sensors: Results from a Reproducibility Study","volume":"37","author":"Martinez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dysphagia"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738121992324","article-title":"Head Impact Exposures Among Youth Tackle and Flag American Football Athletes","volume":"13","author":"Waltzman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sport. Health A Multidiscip. Approach"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1259\/dmfr\/19990417","article-title":"Comparison of Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor and Charge-Coupled Device Intraoral X-Ray Detectors Using Subjective Image Quality","volume":"32","author":"Kitagawa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dentomaxillofac. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0501.2008.01576.x","article-title":"Radiographic Detection of Artificial Intra-Bony Defects in the Edentulous Area","volume":"20","author":"Jacobs","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Oral. Implant. Res."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tripleo.2007.03.012","article-title":"Diagnostic Validity (or Acuity) of 2D CCD versus 3D CBCT-Images for Assessing Periodontal Breakdown","volume":"104","author":"Vandenberghe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. Endodontol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1007\/s40368-020-00532-y","article-title":"Diagnostic Efficacy of and Indications for Intraoral Radiographs in Pediatric Dentistry: A Systematic Review","volume":"21","author":"Aps","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/9057120","article-title":"State-of-the-Art Digital Imaging in Dentistry: Advanced Research of MRI, CT, CBCT, and Digital Intraoral Imaging","volume":"2018","author":"Honda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McHugh, M., McCaffery, F., and Casey, V. (2012). Barriers to Adopting Agile Practices When Developing Medical Device Software. International Conference on Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination, Palma de Mallorca, 29\u201331 May 2012, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-30439-2_13"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, A.A., Akram, M.U., Salam, A.A., and Butt, W.H. (2022, January 24). An Enhanced Agile-V Model for System Engineering in Complex Medical Device Development. Proceedings of the 2022 2nd International Conference on Digital Futures and Transformative Technologies (ICoDT2), Islamabad, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICoDT255437.2022.9787446"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/2\/588\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T17:58:58Z","timestamp":1760119138000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/2\/588"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,4]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s23020588"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23020588","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,4]]}}}