{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T20:01:54Z","timestamp":1785441714398,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":138,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]],"date-time":"2023-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673308800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research, Development and Innovation Fund of Hungary","award":["135074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["135074"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As the Internet of Things (IoT) concept materialized worldwide in complex ecosystems, the related data security and privacy issues became apparent. While the system elements and their communication paths could be protected individually, generic, ecosystem-wide approaches were sought after as well. On a parallel timeline to IoT, the concept of distributed ledgers and blockchains came into the technological limelight. Blockchains offer many advantageous features in relation to enhanced security, anonymity, increased capacity, and peer-to-peer capabilities. Although blockchain technology can provide IoT with effective and efficient solutions, there are many challenges related to various aspects of integrating these technologies. While security, anonymity\/data privacy, and smart contract-related features are apparently advantageous for blockchain technologies (BCT), there are challenges in relation to storage capacity\/scalability, resource utilization, transaction rate scalability, predictability, and legal issues. This paper provides a systematic review on state-of-the-art approaches of BCT and IoT integration, specifically in order to solve certain security- and privacy-related issues. The paper first provides a brief overview of BCT and IoT\u2019s basic principles, including their architecture, protocols and consensus algorithms, characteristics, and the challenges of integrating them. Afterwards, it describes the survey methodology, including the search strategy, eligibility criteria, selection results, and characteristics of the included articles. Later, we highlight the findings of this study which illustrates different works that addressed the integration of blockchain technology and IoT to tackle various aspects of privacy and security, which are followed by a categorization of applications that have been investigated with different characteristics, such as their primary information, objective, development level, target application, type of blockchain and platform, consensus algorithm, evaluation environment and metrics, future works or open issues (if any), and further notes for consideration. Furthermore, a detailed discussion of all articles is included from an architectural and operational perspective. Finally, we cover major gaps and future considerations that can be taken into account when integrating blockchain technology with IoT.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020788","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T04:59:58Z","timestamp":1673413198000},"page":"788","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":153,"title":["Leveraging Blockchain Technology for Ensuring Security and Privacy Aspects in Internet of Things: A Systematic Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4846-0546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haider Dhia","family":"Zubaydi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, M\u0171egyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8475-3610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P\u00e1l","family":"Varga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, M\u0171egyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1601-0815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00e1ndor","family":"Moln\u00e1r","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, M\u0171egyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1080\/02564602.2018.1444516","article-title":"Towards connected living: 5G enabled Internet of Things (IoT)","volume":"36","author":"Agiwal","year":"2019","journal-title":"IETE Tech. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2017.11.022","article-title":"IoT security: Review, blockchain solutions, and open challenges","volume":"82","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Dorri, A., Kanhere, S.S., and Jurdak, R. (2016). Blockchain in internet of things: Challenges and solutions. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900103","article-title":"Blockchain for managing heterogeneous internet of things: A perspective architecture","volume":"34","author":"Tseng","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Mendez, D.M., Papapanagiotou, I., and Yang, B. (2017). Internet of things: Survey on security and privacy. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, K., and Ge, L. (2013, January 14\u201315). A survey on the internet of things security. Proceedings of the 2013 Ninth International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Security, Emeishan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIS.2013.145"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2014.09.008","article-title":"The Internet of Things vision: Key features, applications and open issues","volume":"54","author":"Borgia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pl\u00f3sz, S., Schmittner, C., and Varga, P. (2017, January 13\u201315). Combining safety and security analysis for industrial collaborative automation systems. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Safety, Reliability, and Security, Trento, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-66284-8_16"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.36244\/ICJ.2020.4.4","article-title":"Supporting digital supply chains by iot frameworks: Collaboration, control, combination","volume":"12","author":"Kozma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infocommun. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-020-03137-8","article-title":"A survey on boosting IoT security and privacy through blockchain","volume":"24","author":"Alfandi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clust. Comput."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1145\/3158333","article-title":"Decentralized blockchain-based electronic marketplaces","volume":"61","author":"Subramanian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2019.100081","article-title":"Blockchain for the IoT and industrial IoT: A review","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panarello, A., Tapas, N., Merlino, G., Longo, F., and Puliafito, A. (2018). Blockchain and iot integration: A systematic survey. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082575"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58822","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2914675","article-title":"Analysis of blockchain solutions for IoT: A systematic literature review","volume":"7","author":"Lo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4177","DOI":"10.1002\/ett.4177","article-title":"Security challenges of blockchain in Internet of things: Systematic literature review","volume":"32","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trans. Emerg. Telecommun. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1108\/JEIM-12-2020-0533","article-title":"Blockchain as a mean to secure Internet of Things ecosystems\u2013a systematic literature review","volume":"34","author":"Hussain","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Enterp. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1108\/JEIM-10-2020-0395","article-title":"Exploring the intellectual cores of the blockchain\u2014Internet of Things (BIoT)","volume":"24","author":"Tsang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Enterp. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008513","DOI":"10.1080\/17517575.2021.2008513","article-title":"Implementing blockchain in information systems: A review","volume":"16","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Enterp. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varga, P., Peto, J., Franko, A., Balla, D., Haja, D., Janky, F., Soos, G., Ficzere, D., Maliosz, M., and Toka, L. (2020). 5G support for Industrial IoT Applications\u2014Challenges, Solutions, and Research gaps. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030828"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2019.106382","article-title":"Blockchain for 5G-enabled IoT for industrial automation: A systematic review, solutions, and challenges","volume":"135","author":"Mistry","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"e4","article-title":"Innovative application of 5G and blockchain technology in Industry 4.0","volume":"6","author":"Husnjak","year":"2019","journal-title":"EAI Endorsed Trans. Ind. Netw. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hewa, T.M., Kalla, A., Nag, A., Ylianttila, M.E., and Liyanage, M. (2020, January 27\u201330). Blockchain for 5G and IoT: Opportunities and challenges. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Eighth International Conference on Communications and Networking (ComNet), Hammamet, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ComNet47917.2020.9306082"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2020.102693","article-title":"Blockchain for 5G and beyond networks: A state of the art survey","volume":"166","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaer, A., Salah, K., Lima, C., Ray, P.P., and Sheltami, T. (2019, January 9\u201313). Blockchain for 5G: Opportunities and challenges. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps), Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GCWkshps45667.2019.9024627"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"157","article-title":"5G, blockchain and ipfs: A general survey with possible innovative applications in industry 4.0","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Husnjak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the MMS 2018: 3rd EAI International Conference on Management of Manufacturing Systems"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"6","article-title":"The 4th Industrial Revolution Powered by the Integration of AI, Blockchain, and 5G","volume":"49","author":"French","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Assoc. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Vermesan, O., Friess, P., Guillemin, P., Gusmeroli, S., Sundmaeker, H., Bassi, A., Jubert, I.S., Mazura, M., Harrison, M., and Eisenhauer, M. (2009). Internet of things strategic research roadmap. Internet of Things-Global Technological and Societal Trends from Smart Environments and Spaces to Green ICT, River Publishers."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2018.11.025","article-title":"Current research on Internet of Things (IoT) security: A survey","volume":"148","author":"Noor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jabraeil Jamali, M., Bahrami, B., Heidari, A., Allahverdizadeh, P., and Norouzi, F. (2019). Towards the Internet of Things: Architectures, Security, and Applications, Springer Nature Switzerland AG.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-18468-1"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darianian, M., and Michael, M.P. (2008, January 20\u201322). Smart home mobile RFID-based Internet-of-Things systems and services. Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering, Phuket, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICACTE.2008.180"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varga, P., Plosz, S., Soos, G., and Hegedus, C. (June, January 31). Security threats and issues in automation IoT. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 13th International Workshop on Factory Communication Systems (WFCS), Trondheim, Norway.","DOI":"10.1109\/WFCS.2017.7991968"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Sikder, A.K., Petracca, G., Aksu, H., Jaeger, T., and Uluagac, A.S. (2018). A survey on sensor-based threats to internet-of-things (iot) devices and applications. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Sarawi, S., Anbar, M., Alieyan, K., and Alzubaidi, M. (2017, January 17\u201318). Internet of Things (IoT) communication protocols: Review. Proceedings of the 2017 8th International Conference on Information Technology (ICIT), Amman, Jordan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICITECH.2017.8079928"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"6122","article-title":"Internet of things-IOT: Definition, characteristics, architecture, enabling technologies, application & future challenges","volume":"6","author":"Patel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Sci. Comput."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.adcom.2018.10.006","article-title":"Technical aspects of blockchain and IoT","volume":"Volume 115","author":"Atlam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Advances in Computers"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortino, G., Savaglio, C., Palau, C.E., de Puga, J.S., Ganzha, M., Paprzycki, M., Montesinos, M., Liotta, A., and Llop, M. (2018). Towards multi-layer interoperability of heterogeneous IoT platforms: The INTER-IoT approach. Integration, Interconnection, and Interoperability of IoT Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-61300-0_10"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2016.10.013","article-title":"Enabling IoT interoperability through opportunistic smartphone-based mobile gateways","volume":"81","author":"Aloi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blackstock, M., and Lea, R. (2014, January 6\u20138). IoT interoperability: A hub-based approach. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on the Internet of Things (IOT), Cambridge, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IOT.2014.7030119"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1109\/MS.2017.2","article-title":"Enabling IoT ecosystems through platform interoperability","volume":"34","author":"Schmid","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Softw."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1486","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2014.2306772","article-title":"User interoperability with heterogeneous IoT devices through transformation","volume":"10","author":"Xiao","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4650","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2874095","article-title":"A scalable blockchain framework for secure transactions in IoT","volume":"6","author":"Biswas","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiu, H., Qiu, M., Memmi, G., Ming, Z., and Liu, M. (2018, January 10\u201312). A dynamic scalable blockchain based communication architecture for IoT. Proceedings of the International Conference on Smart Blockchain, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-05764-0_17"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"46","article-title":"Semantic blockchain to improve scalability in the internet of things","volume":"3","author":"Ruta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open J. Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dukkipati, C., Zhang, Y., and Cheng, L.C. (2018, January 3). Decentralized, blockchain based access control framework for the heterogeneous internet of things. Proceedings of the 3rd ACM Workshop on Attribute-Based Access Control, Tempe, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3180457.3180458"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alzubaidi, M., Anbar, M., Al-Saleem, S., Al-Sarawi, S., and Alieyan, K. (2017, January 17\u201318). Review on mechanisms for detecting sinkhole attacks on RPLs. Proceedings of the 2017 8th International Conference on Information Technology (ICIT), Amman, Jordan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICITECH.2017.8080028"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.36244\/ICJ.2019.2.1","article-title":"Iot hacking\u2013a primer","volume":"11","author":"Papp","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infocommun. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alzubaidi, M., Anbar, M., and Hanshi, S.M. (2017, January 5\u20137). Neighbor-passive monitoring technique for detecting sinkhole attacks in RPL networks. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, Jakarta, Indonesiac.","DOI":"10.1145\/3168390.3168439"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pl\u00f3sz, S., Heged\u0171s, C., and Varga, P. (2016, January 20\u201323). Advanced security considerations in the arrowhead framework. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Safety, Reliability, and Security, Trondheim, Norway.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-45480-1_19"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.36244\/ICJ.2021.3.7","article-title":"Security and autonomic management in system of systems","volume":"13","author":"Maksuti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infocommun. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.101968","article-title":"A novel approach for detecting vulnerable IoT devices connected behind a home NAT","volume":"97","author":"Meidan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8076","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2920987","article-title":"Blockchain for Internet of Things: A survey","volume":"6","author":"Dai","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2020.100227","article-title":"Survey on IoT security: Challenges and solution using machine learning, artificial intelligence and blockchain technology","volume":"11","author":"Mohanta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-020-07947-2","article-title":"Blockchain for IoT access control, security and privacy: A review","volume":"117","author":"Patil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.05.046","article-title":"On blockchain and its integration with IoT. Challenges and opportunities","volume":"88","author":"Reyna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"22","article-title":"Ethereum white paper","volume":"1","author":"Buterin","year":"2013","journal-title":"GitHub Repos."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Androulaki, E., Barger, A., Bortnikov, V., Cachin, C., Christidis, K., De Caro, A., Enyeart, D., Ferris, C., Laventman, G., and Manevich, Y. (2018, January 23\u201326). Hyperledger fabric: A distributed operating system for permissioned blockchains. Proceedings of the 13th EuroSys Conference, Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1145\/3190508.3190538"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roy, S., Ashaduzzaman, M., Hassan, M., and Chowdhury, A.R. (2018, January 18\u201320). Blockchain for IoT security and management: Current prospects, challenges and future directions. Proceedings of the 2018 5th International Conference on Networking, Systems and Security (NSysS), Dhaka, Bangladesh.","DOI":"10.1109\/NSysS.2018.8631365"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cachin, C., and Vukoli\u0107, M. (2017). Blockchain consensus protocols in the wild. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/EDCC.2017.36"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Nakamoto, S. (2008). Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system. Decentralized Bus. Rev., 21260. Available online: https:\/\/www.debr.io\/article\/21260.pdf."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Larimer, D. (2021, November 12). Transactions as Proof-of-Stake. Available online: https:\/\/cryptochainuni.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/Invictus-Innovations-Transactions-As-Proof-Of-Stake.pdf."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"85","article-title":"Delegated proof-of-stake (dpos)","volume":"81","author":"Larimer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bitshare Whitepaper"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Larimer, D. (2021, November 18). Delegated Proof-of-Stake Consensus. Available online: https:\/\/how.bitshares.works\/en\/master\/technology\/dpos.html."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1145\/2695533.2695545","article-title":"Proof of activity: Extending bitcoin\u2019s proof of work via proof of stake [extended abstract] y","volume":"42","author":"Bentov","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACM SIGMETRICS Perform. Eval. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vukoli\u0107, M. (2015, January 29). The quest for scalable blockchain fabric: Proof-of-work vs. BFT replication. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Open Problems in Network Security, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-39028-4_9"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotla, R., Alvisi, L., Dahlin, M., Clement, A., and Wong, E. (2007, January 14\u201317). Zyzzyva: Speculative byzantine fault tolerance. Proceedings of the 21st ACM SIGOPS Symposium on Operating Systems Principles, Stevenson, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1294261.1294267"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1658357.1658358","article-title":"Zyzzyva: Speculative byzantine fault tolerance","volume":"27","author":"Kotla","year":"2010","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Copeland, C., and Zhong, H. (2021, November 13). Tangaroa: A Byzantine Fault Tolerant Raft. Available online: https:\/\/www.scs.stanford.edu\/14au-cs244b\/labs\/projects\/copeland_zhong.pdf."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Ren, L. (2021, November 17). Proof of stake velocity: Building the social currency of the digital age. Available online: https:\/\/cryptochainuni.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/Reddcoin-Proof-of-Stake-Velocity.pdf."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"P4Titan (2021, November 14). Slimcoin: A Peer-To-Peer Crypto-Currency with Proof-of-Burn. Available online: http:\/\/www.doc.ic.ac.uk\/~ids\/realdotdot\/crypto_papers_etc_worth_reading\/proof_of_burn\/slimcoin_whitepaper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borge, M., Kokoris-Kogias, E., Jovanovic, P., Gasser, L., Gailly, N., and Ford, B. (2017, January 26\u201328). Proof-of-personhood: Redemocratizing permissionless cryptocurrencies. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/EuroSPW.2017.46"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Ghosh, M., Richardson, M., Ford, B., and Jansen, R. (2014). A TorPath to TorCoin: Proof-of-Bandwidth Altcoins for Compensating Relays, Naval Research Lab. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Intel (2021, November 14). Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET). Available online: http:\/\/intelledger.github.io\/."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"1","article-title":"The stellar consensus protocol: A federated model for internet-level consensus","volume":"32","author":"Mazieres","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stellar Dev. Found."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Eyal, I., Gencer, A.E., Sirer, E.G., and Van Renesse, R. (2016, January 16\u201318). Bitcoin-ng: A scalable blockchain protocol. Proceedings of the 13th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI 16), Santa Clara, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Cachin, C., Schubert, S., and Vukoli\u0107, M. (2016). Non-determinism in byzantine fault-tolerant replication. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"151","article-title":"The ripple protocol consensus algorithm","volume":"5","author":"Schwartz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ripple Labs Inc White Pap."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Kwon, J. (2021, November 14). Tendermint: Consensus without Mining. Available online: https:\/\/www.weusecoins.com\/assets\/pdf\/library\/Tendermint%20Consensus%20without%20Mining.pdf."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zubaydi, H.D., Chong, Y.W., Ko, K., Hanshi, S.M., and Karuppayah, S. (2019). A review on the role of blockchain technology in the healthcare domain. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8060679"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8114","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2922538","article-title":"A comprehensive survey of blockchain: From theory to IoT applications and beyond","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2021.108005","article-title":"On the suitability of blockchain platforms for IoT applications: Architectures, security, privacy, and performance","volume":"191","author":"Brotsis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10452","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3060508","article-title":"Embedding blockchain technology into IoT for security: A survey","volume":"8","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1504\/IJWGS.2018.095647","article-title":"Blockchain challenges and opportunities: A survey","volume":"14","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Web Grid Serv."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2020.113385","article-title":"A survey of blockchain consensus algorithms performance evaluation criteria","volume":"154","author":"Bamakan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Varga, P., and Janky, F. (2019). Blockchains for Industrial IoT\u2014A Tutorial. RG Prepr."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frank\u00f3, A., Ol\u00e1h, B., Sass, Z., Heged\u00fcs, C., and Varga, P. (2022, January 24\u201326). Towards CBDC-supported Smart Contracts for Industrial Stakeholders. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 5th International Conference on Industrial Cyber-Physical Systems (ICPS), Online.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPS51978.2022.9816857"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bui, N., and Zorzi, M. (2011, January 26\u201329). Health care applications: A solution based on the internet of things. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Applied Sciences in Biomedical and Communication Technologies, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1145\/2093698.2093829"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Maroufi, M., Abdolee, R., and Tazekand, B.M. (2019). On the convergence of blockchain and internet of things (iot) technologies. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Longchamp, Y., Deshpande, S., and Mehra, U. (2023, January 03). The Blockchain Trilemma. Available online: https:\/\/theblockchaintest.com\/uploads\/resources\/SEBA%20-%20The%20Blockchain%20Trilema%20-%202020%20-%20Oct.pdf."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Kitchenham, B., and Charters, S. (2021, December 07). Guidelines for Performing Systematic Literature Reviews in Software Engineering. Available online: https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/__data\/promis_misc\/525444systematicreviewsguide.pdf."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014697","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2014697","article-title":"Trustchain: A privacy preserving blockchain with edge computing","volume":"2019","author":"Jayasinghe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3008906","article-title":"Addressing security and privacy issues of IoT using blockchain technology","volume":"8","author":"Mohanta","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, S., Chen, S., Du, R., Li, W., and Qi, D. (2019, January 23\u201325). Blockchain Based Fine-Grained and Scalable Access Control for IoT Security and Privacy. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Fourth International Conference on Data Science in Cyberspace (DSC), Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSC.2019.00097"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, T.D., Pham, H.A., and Thai, M.T. (2018, January 18\u201320). Leveraging blockchain to enhance data privacy in IoT-based applications. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Social Networks, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-04648-4_18"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2019.01.026","article-title":"PTAS: Privacy-preserving thin-client authentication scheme in blockchain-based PKI","volume":"96","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, S., Song, L., and Sang, C. (2019, January 11\u201313). Research on privacy protection in IoT system based on blockchain. Proceedings of the International Conference on Smart Blockchain, Birmingham, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-34083-4_1"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.001.1900466","article-title":"Spacechain: A three-dimensional blockchain architecture for IoT security","volume":"27","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13263","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3142989","article-title":"A Trust-Centric Privacy-Preserving Blockchain for Dynamic Spectrum Management in IoT Networks","volume":"9","author":"Ye","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdi, A.I., Eassa, F.E., Jambi, K., Almarhabi, K., Khemakhem, M., Basuhail, A., and Yamin, M. (2022). Hierarchical Blockchain-Based Multi-Chaincode Access Control for Securing IoT Systems. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11050711"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dwivedi, A.D., Srivastava, G., Dhar, S., and Singh, R. (2019). A decentralized privacy-preserving healthcare blockchain for IoT. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020326"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10857","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3050703","article-title":"BIoTHR: Electronic Health Record Servicing Scheme in IoT-Blockchain Ecosystem","volume":"8","author":"Ray","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossein, K.M., Esmaeili, M.E., Dargahi, T., and Khonsari, A. (2019, January 5\u20138). Blockchain-based privacy-preserving healthcare architecture. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Canadian Conference of Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE), Edmonton, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCECE.2019.8861857"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8770","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2923525","article-title":"Healthchain: A blockchain-based privacy preserving scheme for large-scale health data","volume":"6","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.10.162","article-title":"Multi-tier blockchain framework for IoT-EHRs systems","volume":"141","author":"Badr","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1800503","article-title":"Privacy-preserving image retrieval for medical IoT systems: A blockchain-based approach","volume":"33","author":"Shen","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21838","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3181609","article-title":"A Blockchain-Assisted Privacy-Aware Authentication Scheme for Internet of Medical Things","volume":"9","author":"Jia","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azbeg, K., Ouchetto, O., and Andaloussi, S.J. (2022). Access Control and Privacy-Preserving Blockchain-Based System for Diseases Management. IEEE Trans. Comput. Soc. Syst.","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSS.2022.3186945"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samuel, O., Omojo, A.B., Mohsin, S.M., Tiwari, P., Gupta, D., and Band, S.S. (2022). An Anonymous IoT-Based E-Health Monitoring System Using Blockchain Technology. IEEE Syst. J.","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2022.3170406"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78887","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3194195","article-title":"BIoMT: A state-of-the-art consortium serverless network architecture for healthcare system using blockchain smart contracts","volume":"10","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Azzaoui, A., Chen, H., Kim, S.H., Pan, Y., and Park, J.H. (2022). Blockchain-Based Distributed Information Hiding Framework for Data Privacy Preserving in Medical Supply Chain Systems. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041371"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101011","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3207803","article-title":"DSMAC: Privacy-aware Decentralized Self-Management of data Access Control based on blockchain for health data","volume":"10","author":"Saidi","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24639","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2799942","article-title":"A blockchain connected gateway for BLE-based devices in the internet of things","volume":"6","author":"Cha","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8075","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2021.07.078","article-title":"Increasing privacy and security by integrating a Blockchain Secure Interface into an IoT Device Security Gateway Architecture","volume":"7","author":"Bacanin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2020.102355","article-title":"Blockchain-based privacy-preserving remote data integrity checking scheme for IoT information systems","volume":"57","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Process. Manag."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2019.07.036","article-title":"IoT information sharing security mechanism based on blockchain technology","volume":"101","author":"Si","year":"2019","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carvalho, K., and Granjal, J. (2021). Security and Privacy for Mobile IoT Applications Using Blockchain. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21175931"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mora, O.B., Rivera, R., Larios, V.M., Beltr\u00e1n-Ram\u00edrez, J.R., Maciel, R., and Ochoa, A. (2018, January 16\u201319). A Use Case in Cybersecurity based in Blockchain to deal with the security and privacy of citizens and Smart Cities Cyberinfrastructures. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2), Kansas City, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISC2.2018.8656694"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Theodorou, S., and Sklavos, N. (2019). Blockchain-based security and privacy in smart cities. Smart Cities Cybersecurity and Privacy, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-815032-0.00003-2"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2019.101653","article-title":"PrivySharing: A blockchain-based framework for privacy-preserving and secure data sharing in smart cities","volume":"88","author":"Makhdoom","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3652","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2894573","article-title":"A blockchain-based solution for enhancing security and privacy in smart factory","volume":"15","author":"Wan","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dang, T.L.N., and Nguyen, M.S. (2018, January 27\u201329). An approach to data privacy in smart home using blockchain technology. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Advanced Computing and Applications (ACOMP), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACOMP.2018.00017"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2019.09.050","article-title":"An efficient Lightweight integrated Blockchain (ELIB) model for IoT security and privacy","volume":"102","author":"Mohanty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2019.08.005","article-title":"LSB: A Lightweight Scalable Blockchain for IoT security and anonymity","volume":"134","author":"Dorri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103651","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3098795","article-title":"Privacy-Preserving Mechanism in Smart Home Using Blockchain","volume":"9","author":"Qashlan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, W., Ma, M., Ye, Y., Zheng, Z., and Zhou, Y. (2018, January 26\u201329). IoT service based on jointcloud blockchain: The case study of smart traveling. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Symposium on Service-Oriented System Engineering (SOSE), Bamberg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/SOSE.2018.00036"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-020-03190-3","article-title":"Privacy protection for fog computing and the internet of things data based on blockchain","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clust. Comput."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6934","DOI":"10.1002\/cpe.6934","article-title":"Securing the access control policies to the Internet of Things resources through permissioned blockchain","volume":"34","author":"Rizzardi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Concurr. Comput. Pract. Exp."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178082","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2958355","article-title":"IoT public fog nodes reputation system: A decentralized solution using Ethereum blockchain","volume":"7","author":"Debe","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1685","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2021.3076759","article-title":"A proxy re-encryption approach to secure data sharing in the Internet of things based on blockchain","volume":"16","author":"Agyekum","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_129","first-page":"1040662","article-title":"Blockchain Data Privacy Protection and Sharing Scheme Based on Zero-Knowledge Proof","volume":"2022","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaganti, R., Varadarajan, V., Gorantla, V.S., Gadekallu, T.R., and Ravi, V. (2022). Blockchain-Based Cloud-Enabled Security Monitoring Using Internet of Things in Smart Agriculture. Future Internet, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi14090250"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Venkatraman, S., and Parvin, S. (2022). Developing an IoT Identity Management System Using Blockchain. Systems, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems10020039"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, J., Xiao, Y., Pei, Q., Ju, Y., Liu, L., Xiao, M., and Wu, C. (2022). SmartDID: A novel privacy-preserving identity based on blockchain for IoT. IEEE Internet Things J.","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3145089"},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"Hyperledger (2022, December 12). Hyperledger Caliper. Available online: https:\/\/www.hyperledger.org\/use\/caliper."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banerjee, A., Dutta, B., Mandal, T., Chakraborty, R., and Mondal, R. (2022). Blockchain in IoT and Beyond: Case Studies on Interoperability and Privacy. Blockchain based Internet of Things, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-9260-4_5"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2035134","DOI":"10.1080\/23311916.2022.2035134","article-title":"A Blockchain Based Decentralized Identifiers for Entity Authentication in Electronic Health Records","volume":"9","author":"Manoj","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cogent Eng."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Caro, A., and Iovino, V. (July, January 28). jPBC: Java pairing based cryptography. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC), Kerkyra, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCC.2011.5983948"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kousaridas, A., Falangitis, S., Magdalinos, P., Alonistioti, N., and Dillinger, M. (September, January 30). SYSTAS: Density-based algorithm for clusters discovery in wireless networks. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 26th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2015.7343649"},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"74","article-title":"A discussion on elliptic curve cryptography and its applications","volume":"9","author":"Verma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Issues"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/2\/788\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:05:32Z","timestamp":1760119532000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/2\/788"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]},"references-count":138,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s23020788"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23020788","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]}}}