{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T00:10:35Z","timestamp":1770682235300,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]],"date-time":"2023-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673827200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Shipping traffic is recognised as the main man-noise source of the anthropogenic noise generated in the marine environment. The underwater acoustic pollution is increased due to the increment of the human activity at seas supposing a threat for marine habitats. The ship as acoustic source must be understood and controlled to manage the maritime areas both in time and space to reduce the impact of noise in marine fauna. Shipping noise is mainly composed of flow noise, propeller noise and machinery noise. This research is focused on the analysis and estimation of the underwater radiated noise generated by the vibrations of the onboard machinery or structure-borne noise based on the calculation of the transfer function. This function relates the acceleration levels of the vibrations of the hull\u2019s panels and the radiated noise by them using the radiation efficiency. Different analytical methods to estimate the radiation efficiency are presented and compared with data collected at sea. The measurements are performed acquiring simultaneously acceleration and acoustic levels by means on accelerometers installed on the hull\u2019s panels at different positions and hydrophones deployed close to the bow, middle and stern of the ship. The analysis of the transmission of the vibrations along the ships is performed using the data from different locations of the hydrophones. The quality of the measurements is analysed using the coherence function through the spectral correlation between the measurement of vibrations and acoustic levels. On the other hand, signal-to-noise ratio is computed to verify the strength of the noise sources. The computed transfer function is used to predict the underwater radiated noise from vibrations showing differences less than 2 dB re to 1 \u03bcPa2.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23021035","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]],"date-time":"2023-01-16T06:03:30Z","timestamp":1673849010000},"page":"1035","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Analysis of the Underwater Radiated Noise Generated by Hull Vibrations of the Ships"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3513-0705","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodrigo F.","family":"Javier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory, University of Alicante, Ctra. San Vicente del Raspeig, 03080 Alicante, Spain"}]},{"given":"Ramis","family":"Jaime","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory, University of Alicante, Ctra. San Vicente del Raspeig, 03080 Alicante, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5975-9319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Poveda","family":"Pedro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory, University of Alicante, Ctra. San Vicente del Raspeig, 03080 Alicante, Spain"}]},{"given":"Carbajo","family":"Jesus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory, University of Alicante, Ctra. San Vicente del Raspeig, 03080 Alicante, Spain"}]},{"given":"Segovia","family":"Enrique","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, University of Alicante, Ctra. San Vicente del Raspeig, 03080 Alicante, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"5","article-title":"On ocean underwater ambient noise","volume":"18","author":"Ross","year":"1993","journal-title":"Inst. Acoust. Bull."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2005.850879","article-title":"Ship sources of ambient noise","volume":"30","author":"Ross","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Hildebrand, J.A., and Sources of Anthropogenic Sound in the Marine Environment (2022, July 16). International Policy Workshop on Sound and Marine Mammals, London, UK, 28\u201330 September, Available online: https:\/\/www.mmc.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/hildebrand.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2967889","article-title":"A 50 year comparison of ambient noise in Northeast Pacific west of San Nicolas Island, California","volume":"124","author":"McDonald","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2012.05.004","article-title":"Assessing sound exposure from shipping in coastal waters using a single hydrophone and automatic identification system (AIS) data","volume":"64","author":"Merchant","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bulletin."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigo, F.J., Ramis, J., Carbajo, J., and Poveda, P. (2022). Underwater Anthropogenic Noise Pollution Assessment in Shallow Waters on the South-Eastern Coast of Spain. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse10091311"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1038\/srep00437","article-title":"Noiseonomics: The relationship between ambient noise levels in the sea and global economic trends","volume":"2","author":"Frisk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"International Maritime Organization (IMO) (2022, September 01). Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), Noise from Commercial Shipping and Its Adverse Impact on Marine Life, Available online: https:\/\/www.ascobans.org\/en\/document\/imo-mepc-59-noise-commercial-shipping-and-its-adverse-impacts-marine-life-%E2%80%93-report."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"OSPAR Commission (2009). Overview of the Impacts of Anthropogenic Underwater Sound in the Marine Environment, OSPAR Commission. Report, 441."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Hattori, K., Nakamachi, K., and Sanada, M. (1985, January 18\u201320). Prediction of underwater sound radiated from ship\u2019s hull by using statistical energy analysis. Proceedings of the Internoise 85, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kim, J.S., Kim, H.S., Kang, H.J., and Kim, S.R. (2020, January 25). Transfer Function of Structure-borne Noise to Underwater Radiated Noise. Proceedings of the Autumn Conference of KSNVE, Seoul, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-460X(02)01450-5","article-title":"A methodology for predicting impact-induced acoustic noise in machine systems","volume":"266","author":"Oppenheimer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.51400\/2709-6998.2451","article-title":"Robert Sutton, Ben Dobson. Machine vibration induced underwater acoustic radiation","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mar. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyon, R.H. (1975). Statistical Energy Analysis of Dynamical Systems: Theory and Applications, M.I.T. Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/6449.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyon, R.H. (1995). Theory and Application of Statistical Energy Analysis, Butterworth-Heinemann. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7506-9111-6.50005-1"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03041209","article-title":"Recent developments in Finite Element Methods for structural acoustics","volume":"3","author":"Harari","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2006). Underwater acoustics-Hydrophones-Calibration in the frequency range 0.01 Hz to 1 MHz. Standard No. IEC 60565."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2015). Methods for the calibration of vibration and shock transducers\u2014Part 43: Calibration of accelerometers by model-based parameter identification. Standard No. IEC 16063-43:2015."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2014). Electroacoustics-Octave-Band and Fractional-Octave-Band Filters\u2014Part 1: Specifications. Standard No. IEC 61260."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2016). Preferred reference values for acoustical and vibratory levels. Standard No. ISO 1683:2015."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Tucker, D.G., and Gazey, B.K. (1966). Applied Underwater Acoustics, Pergamon Press."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Carlson, B. (1968). Communication Systems: An Introduction to Signals and Noise in Electrical Communication, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Tucker, S. (1994). Communication Systems, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ziemer, R.E., and Tranter, W.H. (1995). Principles of Communication Systems, Modulation and Noise, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Ehrenberg, J.E. (1978). Effects of Noise on In-Situ Fish Target-Strength Measurements Obtained with a Dual-Beam Transducer System, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington. APL-UW 7810."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.1979.1145434","article-title":"A comparative analysis of in-situ methods for directly measuring the acoustic target strength of individual fish","volume":"OE-4","author":"Ehrenberg","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Ehrenberg, J.E. (1981). Analysis of Split-Beam, Backscattering Cross-Section Estimation and Single-Echo Isolation Techniques, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington. APL-UW 8108."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ehrenberg, J.E., and Weimer, R.T. (1974). Effects of Thresholds on the Estimated Fish-Scattering Cross-Section Obtained with a Dual Beam Transducer System, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington. APL-8UW 7421."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1139\/f75-299","article-title":"Analysis of threshold induced bias inherent in acoustic-scattering, cross-section estimates of individual fish","volume":"32","author":"Weimer","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Fish. Res. Board Can."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Mitson, R.B. (1991). Fisheries Sonar. Fishing News Books, John & Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Mitson, R.B. (1995). Underwater Noise of Research Vessels, Review and Recommendations, ICES Cooperative Research. Report No. 209."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Furusawa, M., Asami, T., and Hamada, E. (1999, January 19\u201321). Detection range of echosounder. Proceedings of the 3rd JSPS International Seminar, Sustained Fishing Technology in Asia towards the 21st Century,  Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.2331\/suisan.59.967","article-title":"Versatile echosounding system using dual beam","volume":"59","author":"Furusawa","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nippon. Suisan Gakkaishi"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Bendat, J.S., and Piersol, A.G. (1971). Random Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures, Wiley Interscience."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lyons, R.G. (2011). Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3425","DOI":"10.1007\/s12206-014-0803-1","article-title":"Specification of the hull vibration to control underwater radiated noise by estimation with modified experimental sound radiation efficiency","volume":"28","author":"Han","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mech. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1918200","article-title":"Response of ribbed panels to reverberant acoustic fields","volume":"34","author":"Maidanik","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"36","article-title":"Prediction of underwater noise radiated from ship\u2019s hull","volume":"686","author":"Uchida","year":"1986","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Nav. Archit. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rubino, F., Nistic\u00f2, A., Tucci, F., and Carlone, P. (2020). Marine Application of Fiber Reinforced Composites: A Review. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8010026"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.-G., Oh, D., and Woo, J.H. (2021). The Effect of High Glass Fiber Content and Reinforcement Combination on Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Measurement of Composite Ship Structures. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9040379"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Nikiforov, S. (2021, August 01). Acoustic Design of Naval Structures. NSWCCD-70--TR-2005\/149. Ship Signatures Department. Research and Development Report. December 2005. Available online: https:\/\/apps.dtic.mil\/sti\/pdfs\/ADA463069.pdf."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/2\/1035\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:07:23Z","timestamp":1760119643000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/2\/1035"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s23021035"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23021035","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]]}}}