{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T20:16:22Z","timestamp":1773864982024,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,18]],"date-time":"2023-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674000000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"French Ministry of Higher Education and Research","award":["2014 930181"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014 930181"]}]},{"name":"National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS)","award":["2014 930181"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014 930181"]}]},{"name":"Nord-Pas-de-Calais Region","award":["2014 930181"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014 930181"]}]},{"name":"Zodiac Seats France and Direction G\u00e9n\u00e9rale de l\u2019Aviation Civile","award":["2014 930181"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014 930181"]}]},{"name":"Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI)","award":["2014 930181"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014 930181"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuro mechanical time delay is inevitable in the sensorimotor control of the body due to sensory, transmission, signal processing and muscle activation delays. In essence, time delay reduces stabilization efficiency, leading to system instability (e.g., falls). For this reason, estimation of time delay in patients such as people living with spinal cord injury (SCI) can help therapists and biomechanics to design more appropriate exercise or assistive technologies in the rehabilitation procedure. In this study, we aim to estimate the muscle onset activation in SCI people by four strategies on EMG data. Seven complete SCI individuals participated in this study, and they maintained their stability during seated balance after a mechanical perturbation exerting at the level of the third thoracic vertebra between the scapulas. EMG activity of eight upper limb muscles were recorded during the stability. Two strategies based on the simple filtering (first strategy) approach and TKEO technique (second strategy) in the time domain and two other approaches of cepstral analysis (third strategy) and power spectrum (fourth strategy) in the time\u2013frequency domain were performed in order to estimate the muscle onset. The results demonstrated that the TKEO technique could efficiently remove the electrocardiogram (ECG) and motion artifacts compared with the simple classical filtering approach. However, the first and second strategies failed to find muscle onset in several trials, which shows the weakness of these two strategies. The time\u2013frequency techniques (cepstral analysis and power spectrum) estimated longer activation onset compared with the other two strategies in the time domain, which we associate with lower-frequency movement in the maintaining of sitting stability. In addition, no correlation was found for the muscle activation sequence nor for the estimated delay value, which is most likely caused by motion redundancy and different stabilization strategies in each participant. The estimated time delay can be used in developing a sensory motor control model of the body. It not only can help therapists and biomechanics to understand the underlying mechanisms of body, but also can be useful in developing assistive technologies based on their stability mechanism.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23031132","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]],"date-time":"2023-01-19T01:33:51Z","timestamp":1674092031000},"page":"1132","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Sensorimotor Time Delay Estimation by EMG Signal Processing in People Living with Spinal Cord Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Seyed Mohammadreza","family":"Shokouhyan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, CNRS, UMR 8201-LAMIH, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7727-7580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathias","family":"Blandeau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, CNRS, UMR 8201-LAMIH, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Wallard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, CNRS, UMR 8201-LAMIH, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}]},{"given":"Thierry Marie","family":"Guerra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, CNRS, UMR 8201-LAMIH, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}]},{"given":"Philippe","family":"Pudlo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, CNRS, UMR 8201-LAMIH, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}]},{"given":"Dany H.","family":"Gagnon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathokinesiology Laboratory, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation of Greater Montr\u00e9al (CRIR), Montr\u00e9al, QC H3S 1M9, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3519-9462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Franck","family":"Barbier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, CNRS, UMR 8201-LAMIH, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"},{"name":"INSA Hauts-de-France, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1403.2009.00184.x","article-title":"Closed-Loop Control of Functional Electrical Stimulation-Assisted Arm-Free Standing in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury: A Feasibility Study","volume":"12","author":"Vette","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuromodulation Technol. 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