{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T08:12:25Z","timestamp":1777363945497,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]],"date-time":"2023-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674172800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Changsha Automotive Innovation Research Institute Innovation Project\u2013Research on Intelligent Trip Planning System of Pure Electric Vehicles Based on Big Data","award":["CAIRIZT20220105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAIRIZT20220105"]}]},{"name":"Changsha Automotive Innovation Research Institute Innovation Project\u2013Research on Intelligent Trip Planning System of Pure Electric Vehicles Based on Big Data","award":["20YFZCGX00770"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YFZCGX00770"]}]},{"name":"science and technology planning project in Tianjin city","award":["CAIRIZT20220105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAIRIZT20220105"]}]},{"name":"science and technology planning project in Tianjin city","award":["20YFZCGX00770"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YFZCGX00770"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The mechanical coupling of multiple powertrain components makes the energy management of 4-wheel-drive (4WD) plug-in fuel cell electric vehicles (PFCEVs) relatively complex. Optimizing energy management strategies (EMSs) for this complex system is essential, aiming at improving the vehicle economy and the adaptability of operating conditions. Accordingly, a novel adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (A-ECMS) based on the dragonfly algorithm (DA) is proposed to achieve coordinated control of the powertrain components, front and rear motors, as well as the fuel cell system and the battery. To begin with, the equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) with extraordinary instantaneous optimization ability is used to distribute the vehicle demand power into the front and rear motor power, considering the different motor characteristics. Subsequently, under the proposed novel hierarchical energy management framework, the well-designed A-ECMS based on DA empowers PFCEVs with significant energy-saving advantages and adaptability to operating conditions, which are achieved by precise power distribution considering the operating characteristics of the fuel cell system and battery. These provide state-of-the-art energy-saving abilities for the multi-degree-of-freedom systems of PFCEVs. Lastly, a series of detailed evaluations are performed through simulations to validate the improved performance of A-ECMS. The corresponding results highlight the optimal control performance in the energy-saving performance of A-ECMS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23031192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]],"date-time":"2023-01-20T06:52:41Z","timestamp":1674197561000},"page":"1192","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["A Novel A-ECMS Energy Management Strategy Based on Dragonfly Algorithm for Plug-in FCEVs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9759-9536","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shibo","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1820-8999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jincheng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shilin","family":"Pu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jihao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhuoran","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1501-3771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wen","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automotive Engineering, Changzhou Institute of Technology, Changzhou 213032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2020.118212","article-title":"Rule learning based energy management strategy of fuel cell hybrid vehicles considering multi-objective optimization","volume":"207","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2020.110185","article-title":"Review of energy storage systems for vehicles based on technology, environmental impacts, and costs","volume":"135","author":"Balali","year":"2021","journal-title":"Renew. 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