{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:50:10Z","timestamp":1760147410088,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Project Dicyt","award":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"]}]},{"name":"FONDEF","award":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"]}]},{"name":"FONDECYT","award":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"]}]},{"name":"STIC-AmSud 22-STIC-01","award":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"]}]},{"name":"BECAS DE MAGISTER NACIONAL ANID N\u00b0","award":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["062117SG","ID21I10191","1211132","22220262"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article proposes a novel method for detecting coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in an underground channel using visible light communication (VLC) and machine learning (ML). We present mathematical models of COVID-19 Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA) gene transfer in regular square constellations using a CSK\/QAM-based VLC system. ML algorithms are used to classify the bands present in each electrophoresis sample according to whether the band corresponds to a positive, negative, or ladder sample during the search for the optimal model. Complexity studies reveal that the square constellation N=22i\u00d722i,(i=3) yields a greater profit. Performance studies indicate that, for BER = 10\u22123, there are gains of \u221210 [dB], \u22123 [dB], 3 [dB], and 5 [dB] for N=22i\u00d722i,(i=0,1,2,3), respectively. Based on a total of 630 COVID-19 samples, the best model is shown to be XGBoots, which demonstrated an accuracy of 96.03%, greater than that of the other models, and a recall of 99% for positive values.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23031533","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T08:56:26Z","timestamp":1675068986000},"page":"1533","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A New COVID-19 Detection Method Based on CSK\/QAM Visible Light Communication and Machine Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5501-5651","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ismael","family":"Soto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CIMTT, Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170124, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3995-697X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raul","family":"Zamorano-Illanes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIMTT, Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170124, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1590-9877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raimundo","family":"Becerra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370451, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3958-503X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pablo","family":"Palacios J\u00e1tiva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370451, Chile"},{"name":"Escuela de Inform\u00e1tica y Telecomunicaciones, Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago 8370190, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3461-4484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cesar A.","family":"Azurdia-Meza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370451, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5674-8489","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wilson","family":"Alavia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIMTT, Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170124, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5312-925X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ver\u00f3nica","family":"Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento en Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda de los Alimentos, de la Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170124, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0050-9435","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Ijaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5692-5673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Zabala-Blanco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Industry, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.18006\/2022.10(6).1215.1221","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 emerging Omicron subvariants with a special focus on BF.7 and XBB.1.5 recently posing fears of rising cases amid ongoing COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"10","author":"Dhama","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. 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