{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T14:49:37Z","timestamp":1779202177137,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"EU Horizon 2020 5G-PPP 5G-INDUCE project (\u201cOpen cooperative 5G experimentation platforms for the industrial sector NetApps\u201d)","award":["H2020-ICT-2020-2\/101016941"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-ICT-2020-2\/101016941"]}]},{"name":"EU Horizon 2020 5G-PPP 5G-INDUCE project (\u201cOpen cooperative 5G experimentation platforms for the industrial sector NetApps\u201d)","award":["HORIZON-CL4-2022-DATA-01-03\/101093069"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HORIZON-CL4-2022-DATA-01-03\/101093069"]}]},{"name":"EU Horizon Europe INCODE project (\u201cProgramming platform for intelligent collaborative deployments over heterogeneous edge-IoT environments\u201d)","award":["H2020-ICT-2020-2\/101016941"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-ICT-2020-2\/101016941"]}]},{"name":"EU Horizon Europe INCODE project (\u201cProgramming platform for intelligent collaborative deployments over heterogeneous edge-IoT environments\u201d)","award":["HORIZON-CL4-2022-DATA-01-03\/101093069"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HORIZON-CL4-2022-DATA-01-03\/101093069"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite the fact that autonomous driving systems are progressing in terms of their automation levels, the achievement of fully self-driving cars is still far from realization. Currently, most new cars accord with the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Level 2 of automation, which requires the driver to be able to take control of the car when needed: for this reason, it is believed that between now and the achievement of fully automated self-driving car systems, there will be a transition, in which remote driving cars will be a reality. In addition, there are tele-operation-use cases that require remote driving for health or safety reasons. However, there is a lack of detailed design and implementation available in the public domain for remote driving cars: therefore, in this work we propose a functional framework for remote driving vehicles. We implemented a prototype, using a commercial car. The prototype was connected to a commercial 4G\/5G mobile network, and empirical experiments were conducted, to validate the prototype\u2019s functions, and to evaluate its performance in real-world driving conditions. The design, implementation, and empirical evaluation provided detailed technical insights into this important research and innovation area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23031671","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T01:40:25Z","timestamp":1675388425000},"page":"1671","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Design, Implementation, and Empirical Validation of a Framework for Remote Car Driving Using a Commercial Mobile Network"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2114-9798","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier","family":"Saez-Perez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, High St., Paisley PA1 2BE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7764-9858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qi","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, High St., Paisley PA1 2BE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2654-7595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose M.","family":"Alcaraz-Calero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, High St., Paisley PA1 2BE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7798-3055","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose","family":"Garcia-Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dpt. Computer Technology and Computation, University of Alicante, Carr. de San Vicente del Raspeig, s\/n, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Rubicon, C.P. (2021). Future Mobility Insights: Ultra-Durable Powertrains for Autonomous Vehicles, Cenex."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Data, N. (2019). When the Car Takes Over: A Glimpse into the Future of Autonomous Driving, Cenex."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2018). Sae International Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. SAE Int., 4970, 1\u20135."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Visteon (2020). Complementing Autonomous Driving with Teleoperation: Methodology, Challenges and Best Practices, Visteon."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Neumeier, S., Gay, N., Dannheim, C., and Facchi, C. (2018, January 7\u20138). On the Way to Autonomous Vehicles Teleoperated Driving. Proceedings of the AmE 2018\u2014Automotive Meets Electronics, 9th GMM-Symposium, Dortmund, Germany."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14539","article-title":"Deep learning","volume":"521","author":"LeCun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eykholt, K., Evtimov, I., Fernandes, E., Li, B., Rahmati, A., Xiao, C., Prakash, A., Kohno, T., and Song, D. (2018, January 18\u201323). Robust physical-world attacks on deep learning visual classification. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2018.00175"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Azulay, A., and Weiss, Y. (2018). Why do deep convolutional networks generalize so poorly to small image transformations?. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Codevilla, F., Santana, E., Lopez, A.M., and Gaidon, A. (November, January 29). Exploring the Limitations of Behavior Cloning for Autonomous Driving. Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), Seoul, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"CARLA: An Open Urban Driving Simulator","volume":"Volume 78","author":"Levine","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 1st Annual Conference on Robot Learning"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bansal, M., Krizhevsky, A., and Ogale, A.S. (2018). ChauffeurNet: Learning to Drive by Imitating the Best and Synthesizing the Worst. arXiv.","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2019.XV.031"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Bojarski, M., Testa, D.D., Dworakowski, D., Firner, B., Flepp, B., Goyal, P., Jackel, L.D., Monfort, M., Muller, U., and Zhang, J. (2016). End to End Learning for Self-Driving Cars. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2022, April 15). Land Rover: Driverlss Cars Need 1000\u00d7 More Code than Apollo 11. Available online: https:\/\/www.iottechnews.com\/news\/2019\/apr\/17\/land-rover-driverless-cars-code-apollo11\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11347","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3028766","article-title":"Toward Automated Vehicle Teleoperation: Vision, Opportunities, and Challenges","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rao, Q., and Frtunikj, J. (2018, January 28). Deep Learning for Self-Driving Cars: Chances and Challenges. Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Software Engineering for AI in Autonomous Systems, SEFAIS \u201918, Gothenburg, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1145\/3194085.3194087"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2016.09.010","article-title":"Driving to safety: How many miles of driving would it take to demonstrate autonomous vehicle reliability?","volume":"94","author":"Kalra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Wiggers, K. (2022, April 16). Waymo\u2019s Autonomous Cars Have Driven 20 Million Miles on Public Roads. Available online: https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/ai\/waymos-autonomous-cars-have-driven-20-million-miles-on-public-roads\/."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheridan, T.B., Verplank, W.L., and Brooks, T.L. (1978, January 25\u201327). Human and Computer Control of Undersea Teleoperators. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference on Manual Control, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA057655"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Beckett, J., Diederich, N., Hammon, P., Mergler, H., and Taylor, R. (1970). A Computer Aided Teleoperator System Final Report, ASA Center for Aerospace Information (CASI). Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Annala, M., Vaha, P., Matsushita, T., and Heikkila, T. (2000, January 27\u201329). Remote control of an intelligent vehicle in an electronics manufacturing facility via the Internet. Proceedings of the 9th IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication. IEEE RO-MAN 2000 (Cat. No.00TH8499), Osaka, Japan."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, R., Kwak, D., Devarakonda, S., Bekris, K., and Iftode, L. (2017, January 24\u201327). Investigating Remote Driving over the LTE Network. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, AutomotiveUI \u201917, Oldenburg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1145\/3122986.3123008"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neumeier, S., Walelgne, E.A., Bajpai, V., Ott, J., and Facchi, C. (2019, January 19\u201321). Measuring the Feasibility of Teleoperated Driving in Mobile Networks. Proceedings of the 2019 Network Traffic Measurement and Analysis Conference (TMA), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.23919\/TMA.2019.8784466"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Davies, A. (2022, April 16). The War to Remotely Control Self-Driving Cars Heats Up. Available online: https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/designated-driver-teleoperations-self-driving-cars."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Davies, A. (2022, April 16). Self-Driving Cars Have a Secret Weapon: Remote Control. Available online: https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/phantom-teleops."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"LaReau, J.L. (2022, April 16). How General Motors Is Leading the Race for Self-Driving Cars. Available online: https:\/\/www.freep.com\/story\/money\/cars\/general-motors\/2018\/07\/19\/general-motors-cruise-av-autonomous-car\/782570002\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Epple, W. (2022, April 16). Jaguar Land Rover Showcases New Technologies Including a Remote Control Range Rover Sport. Available online: https:\/\/www.landrover.com\/experiences\/news\/jlr-remote-control-range-rover-sport.html."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Samsung (2022, April 16). At Goodwood Festival of Spped. Available online: https:\/\/news.samsung.com\/uk\/worlds-first-remotely-controlled-5g-car-to-make-history-at-goodwood-festival-of-speed."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Hackins, A.J. (The Verge, 2019). Waymo\u2019s Driverless Car: Ghost-Riding in the Back Seat of a Robot Taxi, The Verge."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2022, April 16). Waymo Wordl\u2019s Most Experienced Driver. Available online: https:\/\/waymo.com\/waymo-driver\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2022, April 17). Mercedes-Benz Distornic. Available online: https:\/\/group.mercedes-benz.com\/magazine\/technology-innovation\/easy-tech-distronic.html."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2022, April 17). Jay Ramey. Available online: https:\/\/www.autoweek.com\/news\/technology\/a39943287\/mercedes-drive-pilot-level-3-autonomous\/."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2022, April 18). Nissan ProPilot. Available online: https:\/\/www.nissan-global.com\/EN\/INNOVATION\/TECHNOLOGY\/ARCHIVE\/PROPILOT\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2022, April 18). BMW Personal Co-Pilot. Available online: https:\/\/www.bmw.com.mt\/en\/topics\/fascination-bmw\/bmw-autonomous-driving.html."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Autopilotc, T. (2022, April 18). Available online: https:\/\/www.tesla.com\/autopilot."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2022, April 18). Baidu Apollo Self-Driving System. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/ApolloAuto\/apollo."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2022, April 18). Openpilot. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/commaai\/openpilot."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2022, June 20). Smart DSU Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/commaai\/openpilot\/wiki\/Smart-DSU."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2022, June 20). Panda Hardware. Available online: https:\/\/comma.ai\/shop\/products\/panda."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2022, June 20). Panda GitHub Repository. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/commaai\/panda."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1601119","article-title":"Toward Enforcing Network Slicing on RAN: Flexibility and Resources Abstraction","volume":"55","author":"Ksentini","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600435CM","article-title":"Latency Critical IoT Applications in 5G: Perspective on the Design of Radio Interface and Network Architecture","volume":"55","author":"Schulz","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/3\/1671\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:22:55Z","timestamp":1760120575000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/3\/1671"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s23031671"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23031671","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]}}}