{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T06:47:29Z","timestamp":1778222849053,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003407","name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research (MUR)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PRIN-2017 project DETECT-AGING (Project code 201747Y73L)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN-2017 project DETECT-AGING (Project code 201747Y73L)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A diffuse and continuous monitoring of the in-service structural response of buildings can allow for the early identification of the formation of cracks and collapse mechanisms before the occurrence of severe consequences. In the case of existing masonry constructions, the implementation of tailored Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) systems appears quite significant, given their well-known susceptibility to brittle failures. Recently, a new sensing technology based on smart bricks, i.e., piezoresistive brick-like sensors, was proposed in the literature for the SHM of masonry constructions. Smart bricks can be integrated within masonry to monitor strain and detect cracks. At present, the effectiveness of smart bricks has been proven in different structural settings. This paper contributes to the research by investigating the strain-sensitivity of smart bricks of standard dimensions when inserted in masonry walls subjected to in-plane shear loading. Real-scale masonry walls instrumented with smart bricks and displacement sensors were tested under diagonal compression, and numerical simulations were conducted to interpret the experimental results. At peak condition, numerical models provided comparable strain values to those of smart bricks, i.e., approximately equal to 10\u22124, with similar trends. Overall, the effectiveness of smart bricks in strain monitoring and crack detection is demonstrated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23042211","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T01:36:52Z","timestamp":1676511412000},"page":"2211","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Strain Monitoring and Crack Detection in Masonry Walls under In-Plane Shear Loading Using Smart Bricks: First Results from Experimental Tests and Numerical Simulations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5518-9096","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Meoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2928-1961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonella","family":"D\u2019Alessandro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5271-0563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felice","family":"Saviano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6027-9291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gian Piero","family":"Lignola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1374-0732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fulvio","family":"Parisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5044-8482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Ubertini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"087101","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.52.8.087101","article-title":"Damage detection and characterization using long-gauge and distributed fiber optic sensors","volume":"52","author":"Glisic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2014.09.048","article-title":"Intrinsic self-sensing concrete and structures: A review","volume":"59","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2015.11.089","article-title":"Historical buildings: Multidisciplinary approach to structural\/energy diagnosis and performance assessment","volume":"185","author":"Ascione","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.3221\/IGF-ESIS.51.31","article-title":"Dynamic characterization of progressively damaged segmental masonry arches with one settled support: Experimental and numerical analyses","volume":"14","author":"Masciotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frat. Integrita Strutt."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000122","article-title":"Learning from construction failures due to the 2009 L\u2019Aquila, Italy, earthquake","volume":"24","author":"Augenti","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Perform. Constr. Facil."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2013.06.041","article-title":"Rocking response assessment of in-plane laterally-loaded masonry walls with openings","volume":"56","author":"Parisi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-017-0260-5","article-title":"Continuous monitoring of a challenging heritage tower in Monza, Italy","volume":"8","author":"Saisi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2013.01.005","article-title":"Earthquake damages to cultural heritage constructions and simplified assessment of artworks","volume":"34","author":"Parisi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-017-0254-z","article-title":"Damage patterns in the town of Amatrice after August 24th 2016 Central Italy earthquakes","volume":"16","author":"Fiorentino","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2999","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-020-01009-5","article-title":"Seismic risk assessment of residential buildings in Italy","volume":"19","author":"Dolce","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-019-09526-y","article-title":"On the combined use of ground penetrating radar and crack meter sensors for structural monitoring: Application to the historical Consoli Palace in Gubbio, Italy","volume":"41","author":"Ludeno","year":"2020","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2022.114119","article-title":"Least Angle Regression for early-stage identification of earthquake-induced damage in a monumental masonry palace: Palazzo dei Consoli","volume":"259","author":"Ubertini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2005.09.019","article-title":"Dynamic investigations on a masonry bell tower","volume":"28","author":"Ivorra","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2006.01.007","article-title":"Ambient vibration testing of historic masonry towers for structural identification and damage assessment","volume":"21","author":"Gentile","year":"2007","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Ramos, L.F., Masciotta, M., Louren\u00e7o, P.B., and Vasta, M. (2013, January 10\u201312). SHM of a masonry chimney after a lightning accident. Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Dohrmann Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2020.1719233","article-title":"Fem model calibration of experimental environmental vibration tests on two churches hit by L\u2019Aquila earthquake","volume":"15","author":"Formisano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Archit. Herit."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.123191","article-title":"Ambient vibration testing and empirical relation for natural period of historical mosques. Case study of eight mosques in Kermanshah, Iran","volume":"289","author":"Ashayeri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmadi, S.S., Karanikoloudis, G., Mendes, N., Illambas, R., and Louren\u00e7o, P.B. (2022). Appraising the Seismic Response of a Retrofitted Adobe Historic Structure, the Role of Modal Updating and Advanced Computations. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12111795"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3028","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.3028","article-title":"Machine learning-based automatic operational modal analysis: A structural health monitoring application to masonry arch bridges","volume":"29","author":"Civera","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Control. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1504\/IJMRI.2022.122516","article-title":"Present day status and numerical modelling of heritage masonry bridges of Kalka-Shimla Mountain Railways","volume":"7","author":"Shimpi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Mason. Res. Innov."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borlenghi, P., Saisi, A., and Gentile, C. (2023). ND testing and establishing models of a multi-span masonry arch bridge. J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit., 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-022-00666-1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1080\/14488353.2017.1401196","article-title":"Case studies of material properties of late nineteenth-century unreinforced masonry buildings in Adelaide","volume":"15","author":"Derakhshan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aust. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1680\/jgeot.19.P.243","article-title":"Innovative monitoring of the response of a heritage masonry building to nearby tunnelling in London Clay","volume":"72","author":"Acikgoz","year":"2022","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.126181","article-title":"Review of recent progress on the compressive behavior of masonry prisms","volume":"320","author":"Nalon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2022.115233","article-title":"Masonry buildings subjected to settlements: Half-scale testing, detailed measurements, and insights into behaviour","volume":"278","author":"Dalgic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2022.104845","article-title":"Numerical modelling of the response of two heritage masonry buildings to nearby tunnelling","volume":"131","author":"Pascariello","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"Vision-based three-dimensional reconstruction and monitoring of large-scale steel tubular structures","volume":"2020","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2022.111590","article-title":"Robust crack detection in masonry structures with Transformers","volume":"200","author":"Shamsabadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"99","article-title":"Crack detection in masonry structures using computer vision based on deep learning","volume":"38","author":"Mousavi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sharif J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sangirardi, M., Altomare, V., De Santis, S., and de Felice, G. (2022). Detecting damage evolution of masonry structures through computer-vision-based monitoring methods. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12060831"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2021.12.055","article-title":"Seismic performance evaluation of recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tubular columns with field strain detected via a novel mark-free vision method","volume":"37","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2022.115406","article-title":"Automatic classification of asphalt pavement cracks using a novel integrated generative adversarial networks and improved VGG model","volume":"277","author":"Que","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2017.01.024","article-title":"Effective seismic strengthening and monitoring of a masonry vault by using Glass Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Matrix with embedded Fiber Bragg Grating sensors","volume":"113","author":"Valvona","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.103","article-title":"Crack monitoring in historical masonry with distributed strain and acoustic emission sensing techniques","volume":"162","author":"Verstrynge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2020.1719229","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks for continuous structural health monitoring of historic masonry towers","volume":"15","author":"Barsocchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Archit. Herit."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015009","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aa98c2","article-title":"Smart bricks for strain sensing and crack detection in masonry structures","volume":"27","author":"Downey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1002\/eqe.3148","article-title":"Earthquake-induced damage detection and localization in masonry structures using smart bricks and Kriging strain reconstruction: A numerical study","volume":"48","author":"Ubertini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118907","article-title":"Characterization of the strain-sensing behavior of smart bricks: A new theoretical model and its application for monitoring of masonry structural elements","volume":"250","author":"Meoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1002\/eqe.3166","article-title":"Shaking table tests on a masonry building monitored using smart bricks: Damage detection and localization","volume":"48","author":"Meoni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2021.112199","article-title":"Strain field reconstruction and damage identification in masonry walls under in-plane loading using dense sensor networks of smart bricks: Experiments and simulations","volume":"239","author":"Meoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127375","article-title":"Strain-sensing smart bricks under dynamic environmental conditions: Experimental investigation and new modeling","volume":"336","author":"Meoni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"8","article-title":"Stainless Steel Microfibers for Strain-Sensing Smart Clay Bricks","volume":"2018","author":"Meoni","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-0618(03)00007-2","article-title":"Experimental study on the determination of strength of masonry walls","volume":"17","author":"Corradi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2013.804607","article-title":"Determination of shear strength of masonry panels through different tests","volume":"9","author":"Borri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Archit. Herit."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"193","article-title":"Behaviour of masonry walls strengthened with fibre-reinforced cementitious materials","volume":"174","author":"Celano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Comput. Mech."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meoni, A., D\u2019Alessandro, A., Mancinelli, M., and Ubertini, F. (2021). A Multichannel Strain Measurement Technique for Nanomodified Smart Cement-Based Sensors in Reinforced Concrete Structures. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21165633"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aa6b66","article-title":"Biphasic DC measurement approach for enhanced measurement stability and multi-channel sampling of self-sensing multi-functional structural materials doped with carbon-based additives","volume":"26","author":"Downey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chai, S. (2020). Finite Element Analysis for Civil Engineering with DIANA Software, Springer Nature Singapore Pte. Ltd.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-2945-0"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Hordijk, D.A. (1991). Local Approach to Fatigue of Concrete. [Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000007","article-title":"Nonlinear analyses of tuff masonry walls strengthened with cementitious matrix-grid composites","volume":"13","author":"Lignola","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Compos. Constr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.747.60","article-title":"Modelling of the in-plane and out-of-plane performance of TRM-strengthened masonry walls","volume":"747","author":"Mininno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Louren\u00e7o, P.B. (2010). Recent advances in masonry modelling: Micromodelling and homogenisation. Multiscale Model. Solid Mech. Comput. Approaches, 251\u2013294.","DOI":"10.1142\/9781848163089_0006"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/2211\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:37:24Z","timestamp":1760121444000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/2211"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s23042211"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23042211","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]}}}