{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T21:50:07Z","timestamp":1781128207452,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101069732"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101069732"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cloud-native computing principles such as virtualization and orchestration are key to transferring to the promising paradigm of edge computing. Challenges of containerization, operative models and scarce availability of established tools make a thorough review indispensable. Therefore, the authors have described the practical methods and tools found in the literature as well as in current community-led development projects, and have thoroughly exposed the future directions of the field. Container virtualization and its orchestration through Kubernetes have dominated the cloud computing domain, while major efforts have been recently recorded focused on the adaptation of these technologies to the edge. Such initiatives have addressed either the reduction of container engines and the development of specific tailored operating systems or the development of smaller K8s distributions and edge-focused adaptations (such as KubeEdge). Finally, new workload virtualization approaches, such as WebAssembly modules together with the joint orchestration of these heterogeneous workloads, seem to be the topics to pay attention to in the short to medium term.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23042215","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T02:04:03Z","timestamp":1676513043000},"page":"2215","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":78,"title":["Cloud-Native Workload Orchestration at the Edge: A Deployment Review and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2372-6253","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Va\u00f1o","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Communications Department, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6002-4050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignacio","family":"Lacalle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Communications Department, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2543-9461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Sowi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Newelska 6, 01-447 Warsaw, Poland"},{"name":"Warsaw University of Technology, pl. Politechniki 1, 00-661 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3052-3200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ra\u00fal","family":"S-Juli\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Communications Department, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3795-5404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos E.","family":"Palau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Communications Department, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2579198","article-title":"Edge Computing: Vision and Challenges","volume":"3","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85714","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2991734","article-title":"An Overview on Edge Computing Research","volume":"8","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satyanarayanan, M., Klas, G., Silva, M., and Mangiante, S. (2019, January 1). The Seminal Role of Edge-Native Applications. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Edge Computing, EDGE 2019\u2014Part of the 2019 IEEE World Congress on Services, Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EDGE.2019.00022"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raj, P., Vanga, S., and Chaudhary, A. (2023). Cloud-Native Computing: How to Design, Develop, and Secure Microservices and Event-Driven Applications, Wiley-IEEE Press.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119814795"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). LF Edge Projects. Available online: https:\/\/www.lfedge.org\/projects\/."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). The Eclipse Foundation: Edge Native Working Group. Available online: https:\/\/edgenative.eclipse.org\/."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). CNCF Cloud Native Landscape. Available online: https:\/\/landscape.cncf.io\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Shaping Europe\u2019s Digital Future: IoT and the Future of Edge Computing in Europe. Available online: https:\/\/digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu\/en\/news\/iot-and-future-edge-computing-europe."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). European Comission Funding & Tender Opportunities: \u201cFuture European Platforms for the Edge: Meta Operating Systems (RIA)\u201d. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/info\/funding-tenders\/opportunities\/portal\/screen\/opportunities\/topic-details\/horizon-cl4-2021-data-01-05."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). European Comission Funding & Tender Opportunities: \u201cCognitive Cloud: AI-Enabled Computing Continuum from Cloud to Edge (RIA)\u201d. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/info\/funding-tenders\/opportunities\/portal\/screen\/opportunities\/topic-details\/horizon-cl4-2022-data-01-02."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). EUCloudEdgeIOT: Building the European Cloud Edge IoT Continuum for Business and Research. Available online: https:\/\/eucloudedgeiot.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). ASSIST-IoT EU H2020 Project: Architecture for Scalable, Self-*, Human-Centric, Intelligent, Secure, and Tactile next Generation IoT. Available online: https:\/\/assist-iot.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). aerOS EU HE Project: Autonomous, ScalablE, TRustworthy, Intelligent European Meta Operating System for the IoT Edge-Cloud Continuum. Available online: https:\/\/aeros-project.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2019.02.050","article-title":"Edge Computing: A Survey","volume":"97","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeyu, H., Geming, X., Zhaohang, W., and Sen, Y. (2020, January 12\u201314). Survey on Edge Computing Security. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things Engineering, ICBAIE, Fuzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICBAIE49996.2020.00027"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.011.2000089","article-title":"Convergence of Networking and Cloud\/Edge Computing: Status, Challenges, and Opportunities","volume":"34","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1002\/spe.3014","article-title":"PDMA: Probabilistic Service Migration Approach for Delay-Aware and Mobility-Aware Mobile Edge Computing","volume":"52","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Softw. Pract. Exp."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2021.107660","article-title":"A Game-Based Deep Reinforcement Learning Approach for Energy-Efficient Computation in MEC Systems","volume":"235","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Knowl. Based Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3510415","article-title":"Machine Learning-Based Orchestration of Containers: A Taxonomy and Future Directions","volume":"54","author":"Zhong","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2017.2714638","article-title":"Evaluating Performance of Containerized IoT Services for Clustered Devices at the Network Edge","volume":"4","author":"Morabito","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Al-Doghman, F., Moustafa, N., Khalil, I., Tari, Z., and Zomaya, A. (2022). IEEE Transactions on Services Computing, IEEE."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23472","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3200431","article-title":"Edge Computing for Internet of Everything: A Survey","volume":"9","author":"Kong","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1","article-title":"Virtualization in Cloud Computing","volume":"4","author":"Malhotra","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Inf. Technol. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8585","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-021-05553-3","article-title":"Virtualization in Cloud Computing: Moving from Hypervisor to Containerization\u2014A Survey","volume":"46","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). OpenFaaS: Serverless Functions Made Simple. Available online: https:\/\/www.openfaas.com\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Knative: An Open-Source Enterprise-Level Solution to Build Serverless and Event Driven Applications. Available online: https:\/\/knative.dev\/docs\/."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). CloudEvents: A Specification for Describing Event Data in a Common Way. Available online: https:\/\/cloudevents.io\/."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s10922-019-09504-0","article-title":"Resource Management in a Containerized Cloud: Status and Challenges","volume":"28","author":"Maenhaut","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Netw. Syst. Manag."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-1501-5_12","article-title":"Ritika Docker Containers versus Virtual Machine-Based Virtualization","volume":"814","author":"Yadav","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Canonical Ltd (2023, January 09). Linux Containers: LXC. Available online: https:\/\/linuxcontainers.org\/lxc\/introduction\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1109\/MCC.2014.51","article-title":"Containers and Cloud: From LXC to Docker to Kubernetes","volume":"1","author":"Bernstein","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Cloud Comput."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duan, Q. (2021). Intelligent and Autonomous Management in Cloud-Native Future Networks\u2014A Survey on Related Standards from an Architectural Perspective. Future Internet, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13020042"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13677-022-00367-6","article-title":"Understanding the Challenges and Novel Architectural Models of Multi-Cloud Native Applications\u2014A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"12","author":"Alonso","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cloud Comput."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). AWS IoT Greengrass. Available online: https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/greengrass\/features\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). What Is AWS Snowball Edge?\u2014AWS Snowball Edge Developer Guide. Available online: https:\/\/docs.aws.amazon.com\/snowball\/latest\/developer-guide\/whatisedge.html."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Microsoft Azure IoT Edge. Available online: https:\/\/azure.microsoft.com\/en-us\/products\/iot-edge\/#iotedge-overview."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Certifying IoT Devices: Azure Certified Device Program. Available online: https:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/azure\/partners\/azure-certified-device."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Microsoft Azure Stack Edge. Available online: https:\/\/azure.microsoft.com\/en-us\/products\/azure-stack\/edge\/."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Google Distributed Cloud. Available online: https:\/\/cloud.google.com\/distributed-cloud."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Open Container Initiative. Available online: https:\/\/opencontainers.org\/."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). containerd: An Industry-Standard Container Runtime with an Emphasis on Simplicity, Robustness and Portability. Available online: https:\/\/containerd.io\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). runC: CLI Tool for Spawning and Running Containers According to the OCI Specification. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/opencontainers\/runc."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Moby Project. Available online: https:\/\/mobyproject.org\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). crun: A Fast and Lightweight Fully Featured OCI Runtime and C Library for Running Containers. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/containers\/crun."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Youki: A Container Runtime Written in Rust. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/containers\/youki."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). CRI-O. Available online: https:\/\/cri-o.io\/."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). EVE\u2014LF Edge. Available online: https:\/\/www.lfedge.org\/projects\/eve\/."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). EVE Kubernetes Control Plane Integration\u2014Draft. Available online: https:\/\/wiki.lfedge.org\/display\/EVE\/EVE+Kubernetes+Control+Plane+Integration+-+Draft."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). BalenaOS\u2014Run Docker Containers on Embedded IoT Devices. Available online: https:\/\/www.balena.io\/os\/."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Yocto Project. Available online: https:\/\/www.yoctoproject.org\/."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). BalenaEngine: A Container Engine Purpose-Built for IoT Devices. Available online: https:\/\/www.balena.io\/engine\/."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Buehrle, A. (2023, January 09). Why Embedded Linux Needs a Container Manager Written in C. Available online: https:\/\/pantacor.com\/blog\/embedded-linux-need-container-manager\/."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Pantavisor: A framework for containerized embedded Linux. Available online: https:\/\/pantavisor.io\/."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Truyen, E., van Landuyt, D., Preuveneers, D., Lagaisse, B., and Joosen, W. (2019). A Comprehensive Feature Comparison Study of Open-Source Container Orchestration Frameworks. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9050931"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"638","article-title":"Network Load Balancing for Edge-Cloud Continuum Ecosystems","volume":"Volume 894 LNEE","author":"Mekhilef","year":"2022","journal-title":"Innovations in Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1177\/1094342019877383","article-title":"Towards a Computing Continuum: Enabling Edge-to-Cloud Integration for Data-Driven Workflows","volume":"33","author":"Renart","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. High Perform. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kayal, P. (2020, January 2\u201316). Kubernetes in Fog Computing: Feasibility Demonstration, Limitations and Improvement Scope. Proceedings of the IEEE World Forum on Internet of Things, WF-IoT 2020, New Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WF-IoT48130.2020.9221340"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeffery, A., Howard, H., and Mortier, R. (2021, January 26). Rearchitecting Kubernetes for the Edge. Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Edge Systems, Analytics and Networking, EdgeSys 2021, Part of EuroSys 2021, Online Event, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3434770.3459730"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). K3s: Lightweight Kubernetes. Available online: https:\/\/k3s.io\/."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). K3OS: The Kubernetes Operating System. Available online: https:\/\/k3os.io\/."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). MicroK8s\u2014Zero-Ops Kubernetes for Developers, Edge and IoT. Available online: https:\/\/microk8s.io\/."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). ASSIST-IoT Project D6.5 Technical Support Documentation\u2014Initial; 30 April 2022. Available online: https:\/\/assist-iot.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/D6.5_Technical_Support_Documentation_Initial.pdf."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13728","DOI":"10.1007\/s11227-022-04430-6","article-title":"Kubernetes Distributions for the Edge: Serverless Performance Evaluation","volume":"78","author":"Kjorveziroski","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Supercomput."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Cilium: Linux Native, API-Aware Networking and Security for Containers. Available online: https:\/\/cilium.io\/."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szmeja, P., Forn\u00e9s-Leal, A., Lacalle, I., Palau, C.E., Ganzha, M., Paw\u0142owski, W., Paprzycki, M., and Schabbink, J. (2023). ASSIST-IoT: A Modular Implementation of a Reference Architecture for the Next Generation Internet of Things. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12040854"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). KubeEdge: A Kubernetes Native Edge Computing Framework. Available online: https:\/\/kubeedge.io\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). KubeEdge EdgeMesh: Simplified Network and Services for Edge Applications. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/kubeedge\/edgemesh."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Xu, W. (2023, January 09). Test Report on KubeEdge\u2019s Support for 100,000 Edge Nodes. Available online: https:\/\/kubeedge.io\/en\/blog\/scalability-test-report\/."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Kubernetes on Edge Day 2021: KubeEdge and Kubernetes Help Manage All the Monitoring Devices on the World\u2019s Longest Cross-Sea Bridge. Available online: https:\/\/kubenetesedgedayeu21.sched.com\/event\/iS2I\/kubeedge-and-kubernetes-help-manage-all-the-monitoring-devices-on-the-worlds-longest-cross-sea-bridge-huan-wei-harmonycloud."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Sedna Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sedna.readthedocs.io\/en\/latest\/."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). OpenYurt: An Open Platform That Extends Upstream Kubernetes to Edge. Available online: https:\/\/openyurt.io\/."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). SuperEdge: An Open-Source Container Management System for Edge Computing. It Extends Native Kubernetes to the Edge in a Non-Intrusive WAY. Available online: https:\/\/superedge.io\/."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). EdgeX Foundry: The Enabled Open Software Platform. Available online: https:\/\/www.edgexfoundry.org\/."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Open Horizon\u2014LF Edge. Available online: https:\/\/www.lfedge.org\/projects\/openhorizon\/."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Baetyl: Baetyl, Extend Cloud Computing, Data and Service Seamlessly to Edge Devices. Available online: https:\/\/baetyl.io\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Eclipse IoFog. Available online: https:\/\/iofog.org\/."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Akri: A Kubernetes Resource Interface for the Edge. Available online: https:\/\/docs.akri.sh\/."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2023, January 10). Akri: Custom Discovery Handlers. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/project-akri\/akri-docs\/blob\/main\/docs\/development\/handler-development.md."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52976","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2911732","article-title":"Container Security: Issues, Challenges, and the Road Ahead","volume":"7","author":"Sultan","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2018.1700175","article-title":"Consolidate IoT Edge Computing with Lightweight Virtualization","volume":"32","author":"Morabito","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, R., and Thangaraju, B. (2020, January 2\u20134). Performance Analysis between RunC and Kata Container Runtime. Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Computing and Communication Technologies, CONECCT 2020, Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/CONECCT50063.2020.9198653"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Kata Containers: Open-Source Container Runtime, Building Lightweight Virtual Machines That Seamlessly Plug into the Containers Ecosystem. Available online: https:\/\/katacontainers.io\/."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Li, Z., Group, A., Cheng, J., Chen, Q., Guan, E., Bian, Z., Tao, Y., Zha, B., Wang, Q., and Han, W. (2022, January 11\u201313). RunD: A Lightweight Secure Container Runtime for High-Density Deployment and High-Concurrency Startup in Serverless Computing. Proceedings of the 2022 USENIX Annual Technical Conference, Carlsbad, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1145\/2557963.2566628","article-title":"Unikernels: Rise of the Virtual Library Operating System","volume":"11","author":"Madhavapeddy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Queue"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.111.2000476","article-title":"Fog-Enabled Scalable C-V2X Architecture for Distributed 5G and beyond Applications","volume":"34","author":"Sarrigiannis","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goethals, T., Sebrechts, M., Atrey, A., Volckaert, B., and de Turck, F. (2018, January 18\u201321). Unikernels vs Containers: An in-Depth Benchmarking Study in the Context of Microservice Applications. Proceedings of the 8th IEEE International Symposium on Cloud and Services Computing, SC2 2018, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/SC2.2018.00008"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). MirageOS: A Programming Framework for Building Type-Safe, Modular Systems. Available online: https:\/\/mirage.io\/."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Nabla Containers: A New Approach to Container Isolation. Available online: https:\/\/nabla-containers.github.io\/."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Runnc: OCI-Interfacing Container Runtime for Nabla Containers. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/nabla-containers\/runnc."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). UNICORE EU H2020 Project. Available online: https:\/\/unicore-project.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Unikraft: A Fast, Secure and Open-Source Unikernel Development Kit. Available online: https:\/\/unikraft.org\/."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuenzer, S., B\u0103doiu, V.-A., Lefeuvre, H., Santhanam, S., Jung, A., Gain, G., Soldani, C., Lupu, C., R\u0103ducanu, C., and Banu, C. (2021, January 26\u201328). Unikraft: Fast, Specialized Unikernels the Easy Way. Proceedings of the Sixteenth European Conference on Computer Systems, Online Event, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3447786.3456248"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Jung, A. (2023, January 09). KubeCon + CloudNative North America 2021: Deploying Unikernels in Production with Kubernetes. Available online: https:\/\/kccncna2021.sched.com\/event\/lV2y\/deploying-unikernels-in-production-with-kubernetes-alexander-jung-lancaster-university."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). WebAssembly. Available online: https:\/\/webassembly.org\/."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"(2023, February 13). WebAssembly Community Group WebAssembly Specification Release 2.0 (Draft 2023-02-13); 2023. Available online: https:\/\/webassembly.github.io\/spec\/core\/_download\/WebAssembly.pdf."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Jangda, A., Powers, B., Berger, E.D., and Guha, A. (2019, January 10). Not So Fast: Analyzing the Performance of WebAssembly vs. Native Code. Proceedings of the 2019 USENIX Annual Technical Conference, Renton, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"23","article-title":"New Kid on the Web: A Study on the Prevalence of Webassembly in the Wild","volume":"Volume 11543 LNCS","author":"Musch","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e9n\u00e9trey, J., Pasin, M., Felber, P., and Schiavoni, V. (2022, January 1). WebAssembly as a Common Layer for the Cloud-Edge Continuum. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Flexible Resource and Application Management on the Edge, FRAME 2022, Co-Located with HPDC 2022, Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3526059.3533618"},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"328","article-title":"WebAssembly Modules as Lightweight Containers for Liquid IoT Applications","volume":"Volume 12706 LNCS","author":"Mikkonen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). WASI: WebAssembly System Interface. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/WebAssembly\/WASI."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Clark, L. (2023, January 09). Standardizing WASI: A System Interface to Run WebAssembly Outside the Web. Available online: https:\/\/hacks.mozilla.org\/2019\/03\/standardizing-wasi-a-webassembly-system-interface\/."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"353","article-title":"Wasmachine: Bring the Edge up to Speed with a Webassembly OS","volume":"Volume 2020","author":"Wen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Cloud Computing, CLOUD"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). WASI Standarization Proposals. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/WebAssembly\/WASI\/blob\/main\/Proposals.md."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Wasmer: The Universal WebAssembly Runtime. Available online: https:\/\/wasmer.io\/."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Wasmtime: A Fast and Secure Runtime for WebAssembly. Available online: https:\/\/wasmtime.dev\/."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). WasmEdge: Bring the Cloud-Native and Serverless Application Paradigms to Edge Computing. Available online: https:\/\/wasmedge.org\/."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menetrey, J., Pasin, M., Felber, P., and Schiavoni, V. (2021, January 19\u201322). Twine: An Embedded Trusted Runtime for WebAssembly. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 37th International Conference on Data Engineering (ICDE), Chania, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDE51399.2021.00025"},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Charboneau, T. (2023, January 09). Why Containers and WebAssembly Work Well Together. Available online: https:\/\/www.docker.com\/blog\/why-containers-and-webassembly-work-well-together\/."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Gain, B.C. (2023, January 09). When WebAssembly Replaces Docker. Available online: https:\/\/thenewstack.io\/when-webassembly-replaces-docker\/."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Irwin, M. (2023, January 09). Introducing the Docker+Wasm Technical Preview. Available online: https:\/\/www.docker.com\/blog\/docker-wasm-technical-preview\/."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Kubernetes Reference Documentation: Runtime Class. Available online: https:\/\/kubernetes.io\/docs\/concepts\/containers\/runtime-class\/."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). Krustlet: Run WebAssembly Workloads in Your Kubernetes Cluster. Available online: https:\/\/krustlet.dev\/."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sebrechts, M., Ramlot, T., Borny, S., Goethals, T., Volckaert, B., and de Turck, F. (2022, January 2). Adapting Kubernetes Controllers to the Edge: On-Demand Control Planes Using Wasm and WASI. Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Cloud Networking, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/CloudNet55617.2022.9978884"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/2215\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:37:27Z","timestamp":1760121447000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/2215"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"references-count":113,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s23042215"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23042215","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]}}}