{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:54:37Z","timestamp":1760147677089,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/DTP-DES\/0968\/2014","UID\/DTP\/00617\/2020","UI\/BD\/150673\/2020","SFRH\/BD\/146976\/2019","SFRH\/BD\/117622\/2016","LA\/P\/0064\/2020","POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016707"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/DTP-DES\/0968\/2014","UID\/DTP\/00617\/2020","UI\/BD\/150673\/2020","SFRH\/BD\/146976\/2019","SFRH\/BD\/117622\/2016","LA\/P\/0064\/2020","POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016707"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)","award":["PTDC\/DTP-DES\/0968\/2014","UID\/DTP\/00617\/2020","UI\/BD\/150673\/2020","SFRH\/BD\/146976\/2019","SFRH\/BD\/117622\/2016","LA\/P\/0064\/2020","POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016707"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/DTP-DES\/0968\/2014","UID\/DTP\/00617\/2020","UI\/BD\/150673\/2020","SFRH\/BD\/146976\/2019","SFRH\/BD\/117622\/2016","LA\/P\/0064\/2020","POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016707"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The purpose of this study was to develop peak ground reaction force (pGRF) and peak loading rate (pLR) prediction equations for high-impact activities in adult subjects with a broad range of body masses, from normal weight to severe obesity. A total of 78 participants (27 males; 82.4 \u00b1 20.6 kg) completed a series of trials involving jumps of different types and heights on force plates while wearing accelerometers at the ankle, lower back, and hip. Regression equations were developed to predict pGRF and pLR from accelerometry data. Leave-one-out cross-validation was used to calculate prediction accuracy and Bland\u2013Altman plots. Body mass was a predictor in all models, along with peak acceleration in the pGRF models and peak acceleration rate in the pLR models. The equations to predict pGRF had a coefficient of determination (R2) of at least 0.83, and a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) below 14.5%, while the R2 for the pLR prediction equations was at least 0.87 and the highest MAPE was 24.7%. Jumping pGRF can be accurately predicted through accelerometry data, enabling the continuous assessment of mechanical loading in clinical settings. The pLR prediction equations yielded a lower accuracy when compared to the pGRF equations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23042246","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,17]],"date-time":"2023-02-17T01:32:56Z","timestamp":1676597576000},"page":"2246","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Using Raw Accelerometer Data to Predict High-Impact Mechanical Loading"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Lucas","family":"Veras","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Flor\u00eancio","family":"Diniz-Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Giorjines","family":"Boppre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1032-4474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00edtor","family":"Devezas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity Integrated Responsability Unity (CRIO), S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o Academic Medical Center, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Hugo","family":"Santos-Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity Integrated Responsability Unity (CRIO), S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o Academic Medical Center, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Preto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity Integrated Responsability Unity (CRIO), S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o Academic Medical Center, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4109-2939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Paulo","family":"Vilas-Boas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5332-5974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leandro","family":"Machado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1829-4196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9002-8976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H\u00e9lder","family":"Fonseca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1097\/00003677-200301000-00009","article-title":"Designing exercise regimens to increase bone strength","volume":"31","author":"Turner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-013-0100-7","article-title":"Bone quality: The determinants of bone strength and fragility","volume":"44","author":"Fonseca","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-017-9732-6","article-title":"Exercise and bone health across the lifespan","volume":"18","author":"Santos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biogerontology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000142662.21767.58","article-title":"Physical activity and bone health","volume":"36","author":"Kohrt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1016\/S8756-3282(02)00707-X","article-title":"Effects of biomechanical stress on bones in animals","volume":"30","author":"Burr","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/S8756-3282(98)00118-5","article-title":"Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli","volume":"23","author":"Turner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03026318","article-title":"Mechanisms by which exercise improves bone strength","volume":"23","author":"Turner","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Metab."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1687","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-009-1101-0","article-title":"Cross-sectional geometry of weight-bearing tibia in female athletes subjected to different exercise loadings","volume":"21","author":"Nikander","year":"2010","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.9.2.159","article-title":"Influence of peak strain on lumbar bone mineral density: An analysis of 15-year physical activity in young males and females","volume":"9","author":"Groothausen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-008-0606-2","article-title":"The BPAQ: A bone-specific physical activity assessment instrument","volume":"19","author":"Weeks","year":"2008","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181eeb2f2","article-title":"Quantifying bone-relevant activity and its relation to bone strength in girls","volume":"43","author":"Farr","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.J., So, W.Y., Kim, J., and Sung, D.J. (2016). Relationship between bone-specific physical activity scores and measures for body composition and bone mineral density in healthy young college women. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162127"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s11657-018-0495-8","article-title":"Association between bone-specific physical activity scores and pQCT-derived measures of bone strength and geometry in healthy young and middle-aged premenopausal women","volume":"13","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Osteoporos."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medved, V. (2000). Measurement of Human Locomotion, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420036985"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"75","article-title":"Correlation between ground reaction force and tibial acceleration in vertical jumping","volume":"30","author":"Elvin","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.12.006","article-title":"Acceleration counts and raw acceleration output in relation to mechanical loading","volume":"45","author":"Rowlands","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neugebauer, J.M., Hawkins, D.A., and Beckett, L. (2012). Estimating youth locomotion ground reaction forces using an accelerometer-based activity monitor. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048182"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neugebauer, J.M., Collins, K.H., and Hawkins, D.A. (2014). Ground reaction force estimates from ActiGraph GT3X+ hip accelerations. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0099023"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.2014-0037","article-title":"Assessment of gait kinetics using tri-axial accelerometers","volume":"30","author":"Fortune","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001686","article-title":"Predicting ground reaction force from a hip-borne accelerometer during load carriage","volume":"50","author":"Neugebauer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-020-05295-2","article-title":"Accelerometer-based prediction of skeletal mechanical loading during walking in normal weight to severely obese subjects","volume":"31","author":"Veras","year":"2020","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veras, L., Diniz-Sousa, F., Boppre, G., Resende-Coelho, A., Moutinho-Ribeiro, E., Devezas, V., Santos-Sousa, H., Preto, J., Vilas-Boas, J.P., and Machado, L. (2022). Mechanical loading prediction through accelerometry data during walking and running. Eur. J. Sport Sci., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2022.2102437"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156779","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2949699","article-title":"Predicting three-dimensional ground reaction forces in running by using artificial neural networks and lower body kinematics","volume":"7","author":"Komaris","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, D., Davidson, P., M\u00fcller, P., and Pich\u00e9, R. (2021). Indirect estimation of vertical ground reaction force from a body-mounted INS\/GPS using machine learning. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041553"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12752","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.12752","article-title":"Predicting continuous ground reaction forces from accelerometers during uphill and downhill running: A recurrent neural network solution","volume":"10","author":"Alcantara","year":"2022","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-020-05714-4","article-title":"High-impact exercise stimulated localized adaptation of microarchitecture across distal tibia in postmenopausal women","volume":"32","author":"Du","year":"2021","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.2499","article-title":"The influence of high-impact exercise on cortical and trabecular bone mineral content and 3D distribution across the proximal femur in older men: A randomized controlled unilateral intervention","volume":"30","author":"Allison","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2021-104977","article-title":"If exercise is medicine, why don\u2019t we know the dose? An overview of systematic reviews assessing reporting quality of exercise interventions in health and disease","volume":"56","author":"Hansford","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"White, M.G.E., Bezodis, N.E., Neville, J., Summers, H., and Rees, P. (2022). Determining jumping performance from a single body-worn accelerometer using machine learning. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0263846"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2022, October 31). National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) Anthropometry Procedures Manual. Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/nchs\/data\/nhanes\/2017-2018\/manuals\/2017_Anthropometry_Procedures_Manual.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Field, A., Miles, J., and Field, Z. (2012). Discovering Statistics Using R, SAGE. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2041-210x.2012.00261.x","article-title":"A general and simple method for obtaining R2 from generalized linear mixed-effects models","volume":"4","author":"Nakagawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S61","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3182399e0f","article-title":"Statistical considerations in the analysis of accelerometry-based activity monitor data","volume":"44","author":"Staudenmayer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(86)90837-8","article-title":"Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement","volume":"327","author":"Bland","year":"1986","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.11613\/BM.2015.015","article-title":"Understanding Bland Altman analysis","volume":"25","author":"Giavarina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochem. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Veras, L. (2022, October 31). impactr: An R Package to Process Raw Accelerometer Data Related to Mechanical Loading. Available online: https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/5035523#.Y-ytp3ZBxPY."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.11.008","article-title":"Accelerometry calibration in people with class II-III obesity: Energy expenditure prediction and physical activity intensity identification","volume":"76","author":"Veras","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2007.03.031","article-title":"Reproducibility of loading measurements with skin-mounted accelerometers during walking","volume":"88","author":"Liikavainio","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-005-0005-x","article-title":"Intensity of exercise is associated with bone density change in premenopausal women","volume":"17","author":"Korpelainen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyx080","article-title":"A small amount of precisely measured high-intensity habitual physical activity predicts bone heath in pre- and post-menopausal women in UK Biobank","volume":"46","author":"Stiles","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2016.10.001","article-title":"Exercise and sports science australia (ESSA) position statement on exercise prescription for the prevention and management of osteoporosis","volume":"20","author":"Beck","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-017-0716-0","article-title":"Accelerometer data collection and processing criteria to assess physical activity and other outcomes: A systematic review and practical considerations","volume":"47","author":"Migueles","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S501","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0000185660.38335.de","article-title":"Principles of design and analyses for the calibration of accelerometry-based activity monitors","volume":"37","author":"Welk","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.08.331","article-title":"Recognizing human daily activities from accelerometer signal","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/2246\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:38:34Z","timestamp":1760121514000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/2246"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s23042246"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23042246","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]}}}