{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T21:15:27Z","timestamp":1762377327009,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,2]],"date-time":"2023-03-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002428","name":"Austrian Science Fund (FWF)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P30927-N30"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30927-N30"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002428","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The purpose of this work is to prove the suitability of integrated single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD)-based indirect time-of-flight (iTOF) for sub-100 \u00b5m precision depth sensing using a correlation approach with GHz modulation frequencies. For this purpose, a prototype containing a single pixel consisting of an integrated SPAD, quenching circuit, and two independent correlator circuits was fabricated in a 0.35 \u00b5m CMOS process and characterized. It achieved a precision of 70 \u00b5m and a nonlinearity of less than 200 \u00b5m at a received signal power of less than 100 pW. Sub-mm precision was achieved with a signal power of less than 200 fW. These results and the simplicity of our correlation approach underline the great potential of SPAD-based iTOF for future depth sensing applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23052733","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,2]],"date-time":"2023-03-02T03:54:56Z","timestamp":1677729296000},"page":"2733","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Indirect Time-of-Flight with GHz Correlation Frequency and Integrated SPAD Reaching Sub-100 \u00b5m Precision in 0.35 \u00b5m CMOS"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7026-0420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Hauser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrodynamics, Microwave and Circuit Engineering TU Wien, 1040 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3221-0769","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Horst","family":"Zimmermann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrodynamics, Microwave and Circuit Engineering TU Wien, 1040 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5239-6957","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Hofbauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrodynamics, Microwave and Circuit Engineering TU Wien, 1040 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024104","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.57.2.024104","article-title":"Compact Laser Radar Based on a Subnanosecond Laser Diode Transmitter and a Two-Dimensional CMOS Single-Photon Receiver","volume":"57","author":"Huikari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. 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