{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:57:03Z","timestamp":1760147823693,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]],"date-time":"2023-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A core endeavour in current affective computing and social signal processing research is the construction of datasets embedding suitable ground truths to foster machine learning methods. This practice brings up hitherto overlooked intricacies. In this paper, we consider causal factors potentially arising when human raters evaluate the affect fluctuations of subjects involved in dyadic interactions and subsequently categorise them in terms of social participation traits. To gauge such factors, we propose an emulator as a statistical approximation of the human rater, and we first discuss the motivations and the rationale behind the approach.The emulator is laid down in the next section as a phenomenological model where the core affect stochastic dynamics as perceived by the rater are captured through an Ornstein\u2013Uhlenbeck process; its parameters are then exploited to infer potential causal effects in the attribution of social traits. Following that, by resorting to a publicly available dataset, the adequacy of the model is evaluated in terms of both human raters\u2019 emulation and machine learning predictive capabilities. We then present the results, which are followed by a general discussion concerning findings and their implications, together with advantages and potential applications of the approach.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23062885","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,8]],"date-time":"2023-03-08T02:08:14Z","timestamp":1678241294000},"page":"2885","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Inferring Causal Factors of Core Affect Dynamics on Social Participation through the Lens of the Observer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8210-4457","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"D\u2019Amelio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"PHuSe Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Milano Statale, Via Celoria 18, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7279-723X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabrina","family":"Patania","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PHuSe Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Milano Statale, Via Celoria 18, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8327-5007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sathya","family":"Bur\u0161i\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PHuSe Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Milano Statale, Via Celoria 18, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza dell\u2019Ateneo Nuovo 1, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8479-9950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vittorio","family":"Cuculo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PHuSe Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Milano Statale, Via Celoria 18, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5572-0924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Boccignone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PHuSe Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Milano Statale, Via Celoria 18, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, H., and Yarosh, S. 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