{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T14:51:23Z","timestamp":1775141483378,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678838400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005357","name":"ERDF","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["APVV-20-0391"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APVV-20-0391"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005357","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Slovak Research and Development Agency","award":["APVV-20-0391"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APVV-20-0391"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The decrease in costs and dimensions of GNSS receivers has enabled their adoption for a very wide range of users. Formerly mediocre positioning performance is benefiting from recent technology advances, namely the adoption of multi-constellation, multi-frequency receivers. In our study, we evaluate signal characteristics and horizontal accuracies achievable with two low-cost receivers\u2014a Google Pixel 5 smartphone and a u-Blox ZED F9P standalone receiver. The considered conditions include open area with nearly optimal signal reception, but also locations with differing amounts of tree canopy. GNSS data were acquired using ten 20 min observations under leaf-on and leaf-off conditions. Post-processing in static mode was conducted using the Demo5 fork of the RTKLIB open source software, which is adapted for usage with lower quality measurement data. The F9P receiver provided consistent results with sub-decimeter median horizontal errors even under tree canopy. The errors for the Pixel 5 smartphone were under 0.5 m under open-sky conditions and around 1.5 m under vegetation canopy. The adaptation of the post-processing software to lower quality data was proven crucial, especially for the smartphone. In terms of signal quality (carrier-to-noise density, multipath), the standalone receiver provided significantly better data than the smartphone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23063136","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T05:22:59Z","timestamp":1678857779000},"page":"3136","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Static Positioning under Tree Canopy Using Low-Cost GNSS Receivers and Adapted RTKLIB Software"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6691-8357","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juli\u00e1n","family":"Toma\u0161t\u00edk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Resources Planning and Informatics, Faculty of Forestry, Technical University in Zvolen, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tim","family":"Everett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RTK Consultants LLC, Niwot, CO 80503, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gogoi, N., Minetto, A., and Dovis, F. (2019, January 22\u201325). On the cooperative ranging between android smartphones sharing raw GNSS measurements. Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2019.8891320"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2013.05.006","article-title":"State of the art and future developments of measurement applications on smartphones","volume":"46","author":"Daponte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purf\u00fcrst, T. (2022). Evaluation of Static Autonomous GNSS Positioning Accuracy Using Single-, Dual-, and Tri-Frequency Smartphones in Forest Canopy Environments. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031289"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/ab8a7d","article-title":"Recent advances and perspectives for positioning and applications with smartphone GNSS observations","volume":"31","author":"Paziewski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Ji, S., Chen, W., and Wang, Z. (2018, January 24\u201328). Assessing the performance of raw measurement from different types of smartphones. Proceedings of the 31st International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, ION GNSS+ 2018, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2018.15881"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-020-00978-z","article-title":"GNSS code and carrier phase observations of a Huawei P30 smartphone: Quality assessment and centimeter-accurate positioning","volume":"24","author":"Wanninger","year":"2020","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2621","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-019-01323-0","article-title":"On the feasibility of resolving Android GNSS carrier-phase ambiguities","volume":"93","author":"Geng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-018-0736-8","article-title":"Quality assessment of GNSS observations from an Android N smartphone and positioning performance analysis using time-differenced filtering approach","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109162","article-title":"An analysis of multi-GNSS observations tracked by recent Android smartphones and smartphone-only relative positioning results","volume":"175","author":"Paziewski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Massarweh, L., Fortunato, M., and Gioia, C. (2020, January 20\u201323). Assessment of Real-time Multipath Detection with Android Raw GNSS Measurements by Using a Xiaomi Mi 8 Smartphone. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS46316.2020.9110169"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Paziewski, J., Pugliano, G., and Robustelli, U. (2020, January 5\u20137). Performance assessment of GNSS single point positioning with recent smartphones. Proceedings of the IMEKO TC-19 International Workshop on Metrology for the Sea, Naples, Italy."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., Guo, Y., Li, X., Zhang, N., Jiang, J., and Wang, G. (2022). Evaluation of Positioning Accuracy of Smartphones under Different Canopy Openness. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13101591"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banville, S., Lachapelle, G., Ghoddousi-Fard, R., and Gratton, P. (2019, January 16\u201320). Automated Processing of Low-Cost GNSS Receiver Data. Proceedings of the Institute of Navigation GNSS+ 2019 Conference, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2019.16972"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aggrey, J., Bisnath, S., Naciri, N., Shinghal, G., and Yang, S. (2019, January 16\u201320). Use of PPP Processing for Next-generation Smartphone GNSS Chips: Key Benefits and Challenges. Proceedings of the 32nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2019), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2019.17073"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baku\u0142a, M., Uradzi\u0144ski, M., and Krasuski, K. (2022). Performance of DGPS Smartphone Positioning with the Use of P(L1) vs. P(L5) Pseudorange Measurements. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14040929"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1007\/s12518-022-00467-7","article-title":"Assessment of a dual-frequency multi-GNSS smartphone for surveying applications","volume":"14","author":"Retscher","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Geomat."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortunato, M., Critchley-Marrows, J., Siutkowska, M., Ivanovici, M.L., Benedetti, E., and Roberts, W. (2019, January 9\u201312). Enabling High Accuracy Dynamic Applications in Urban Environments Using PPP and RTK on Android Multi-Frequency and Multi-GNSS Smartphones. Proceedings of the 2019 European Navigation Conference (ENC), Warsaw, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURONAV.2019.8714140"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yong, C., Odolinski, R., Zaminpardaz, S., Moore, M., Rubinov, E., Er, J., and Denham, M. (2021). Instantaneous, dual-frequency, multi-gnss precise rtk positioning using google pixel 4 and samsung galaxy s20 smartphones for zero and short baselines. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21248318"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Everett, T., Taylor, T., Lee, D.-K., and Akos, D.M. (2022). Optimizing the Use of RTKLIB for Smartphone-Based GNSS Measurements. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103825"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robustelli, U., Baiocchi, V., and Pugliano, G. (2019). Assessment of dual frequency GNSS observations from a Xiaomi Mi 8 android smartphone and positioning performance analysis. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8010091"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortunato, M., Tagliaferro, G., Fern\u00e1ndez-Rodr\u00edguez, E., and Critchley-Marrows, J. (2021, January 20\u201324). The whole works: A GNSS\/IMU tight coupled filter for android raw GNSS measurements with local ground augmentation strategies. Proceedings of the 34th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2021), St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2021.18006"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-021-01196-x","article-title":"An enhanced foot-mounted PDR method with adaptive ZUPT and multi-sensors fusion for seamless pedestrian navigation","volume":"26","author":"Tao","year":"2022","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, H., Xia, L., Li, Q., Xia, J., and Cai, Y. (2022). IMU-Aided Precise Point Positioning Performance Assessment with Smartphones in GNSS-Degraded Urban Environments. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14184469"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2496621","article-title":"Urban Pedestrian Navigation Using Smartphone-Based Dead Reckoning and 3-D Map-Aided GNSS","volume":"16","author":"Hsu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Netthonglang, C., Thongtan, T., and Satirapod, C. (2019, January 11\u201314). GNSS Precise Positioning Determinations Using Smartphones. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Asia Pacific Conference on Circuits and Systems (APCCAS), Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/APCCAS47518.2019.8953132"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0892-5","article-title":"Signal characterization and assessment of code GNSS positioning with low-power consumption smartphones","volume":"23","author":"Paziewski","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s43020-021-00054-y","article-title":"GNSS smartphones positioning: Advances, challenges, opportunities, and future perspectives","volume":"2","author":"Zangenehnejad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Satell. Navig."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVIII-2-W1-2022-171-2022","article-title":"Action Cams and Low-Cost Multi-Frequency Antennas for Gnss Assisted Photogrammetric Applications Without Ground Control Points","volume":"48","author":"Morelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci.-ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-021-01209-9","article-title":"Multi-constellation single-frequency ionospheric-free precise point positioning with low-cost receivers","volume":"26","author":"Paziewski","year":"2022","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-016-0921-x","article-title":"Single-frequency, dual-GNSS versus dual-frequency, single-GNSS: A low-cost and high-grade receivers GPS-BDS RTK analysis","volume":"90","author":"Odolinski","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125801","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aa92eb","article-title":"Low-cost, 4-system, precise GNSS positioning: A GPS, Galileo, BDS and QZSS ionosphere-weighted RTK analysis","volume":"28","author":"Odolinski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hohensinn, R., Stauffer, R., Glaner, M.F., Herrera Pinz\u00f3n, I.D., Vuadens, E., Rossi, Y., Clinton, J., and Rothacher, M. (2022). Low-Cost GNSS and Real-Time PPP: Assessing the Precision of the u-blox ZED-F9P for Kinematic Monitoring Applications. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14205100"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-020-01423-2","article-title":"Best integer equivariant estimation: Performance analysis using real data collected by low-cost, single- and dual-frequency, multi-GNSS receivers for short- to long-baseline RTK positioning","volume":"94","author":"Odolinski","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wielgocka, N., Hadas, T., Kaczmarek, A., and Marut, G. (2021). Feasibility of using low-cost dual-frequency gnss receivers for land surveying. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21061956"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krietemeyer, A., van der Marel, H., van de Giesen, N., and ten Veldhuis, M.C. (2020). High quality zenith tropospheric delay estimation using a low-cost dual-frequency receiver and relative antenna calibration. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12091393"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"3","article-title":"Impacts of forest spatial structure on variation of the multipath phenomenon of navigation satellite signals","volume":"61","author":"Brach","year":"2019","journal-title":"Folia For. Pol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrisano, A., and Gaglione, S. (2022). Smartphone GNSS Performance in an Urban Scenario with RAIM Application. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22030786"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"305","article-title":"Multipath detection with the combination of SNR measurements\u2014Example from urban environment","volume":"66","author":"Hefty","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geod. Cartogr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18224","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2022.3167710","article-title":"3D LiDAR Aided GNSS NLOS Mitigation in Urban Canyons","volume":"23","author":"Wen","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpt054","article-title":"Balancing horizontal accuracy and data collection efficiency with mapping-grade GPS receivers","volume":"87","author":"Frank","year":"2014","journal-title":"Forestry"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zimbelman, E.G., and Keefe, R.F. (2018). Real-time positioning in logging: Effects of forest stand characteristics, topography, and line-of-sight obstructions on GNSS-RF transponder accuracy and radio signal propagation. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0191017"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Toma\u0161t\u00edk, J., and Everett, T. (2023, February 15). u-Blox F9P and Google Pixel 5 (Repeated 20 Minutes Static Measurements under Variable Conditions), Version 1. Available online: https:\/\/data.mendeley.com\/datasets\/83bvxzx3bj."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Mervart, L., Weber, G., St\u00fcrze, A., and St\u00f6ckner, D. (2023, February 10). BKG Ntrip Client (BNC). Available online: https:\/\/igs.bkg.bund.de\/ntrip\/bnc."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2023, February 10). WinTEQC Editor. Available online: https:\/\/teqc.silkwerks.com\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Estey, L., and Wier, S. (2014). Teqc Tutorial: Basics of Teqc Use and Teqc Products, UNAVCO Inc."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Takasu, T. (2023, February 10). RTKLib. Available online: https:\/\/rtklib.com\/."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Everett, T. (2023, February 10). RTKLib Demo5. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/rtklibexplorer\/RTKLIB."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Everett, T. (2022, January 19\u201323). 3rd Place Winner: 2022 Smartphone Decimeter Challenge: An RTKLIB Open-Source Based Solution. Proceedings of the 35th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2022), Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2022.18376"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortunato, M., Ravanelli, M., and Mazzoni, A. (2019). Real-Time Geophysical Applications with Android GNSS Raw Measurements. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11182113"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"16","article-title":"Vyu\u017eitie GPS pri mapovan\u00ed v zalesnen\u00fdch \u00fazemiach","volume":"11","author":"Hricko","year":"2003","journal-title":"Kartogr. List."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magalh\u00e3es, A., Bastos, L., Maia, D., and Gon\u00e7alves, J.A. (2021). Relative positioning in remote areas using a gnss dual frequency smartphone. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21248354"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0885-4","article-title":"Characteristics of raw multi-GNSS measurement error from Google Android smart devices","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, S., Kuang, C., and Yu, W. (2022). Evaluation of Real-Time Kinematic Positioning and Deformation Monitoring Using Xiaomi Mi 8 Smartphone. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12010435"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zangenehnejad, F., Jiang, Y., and Gao, Y. (2023). GNSS Observation Generation from Smartphone Android Location API: Performance of Existing Apps, Issues and Improvement. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020777"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109397","article-title":"Practical applicability of processing static, short-observation-time raw GNSS measurements provided by a smartphone under vegetation conditions","volume":"178","author":"Varga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janos, D., and Kuras, P. (2021). Evaluation of low-cost RTK GNSS receiver in motion under demanding conditions. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21165552"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamza, V., Stopar, B., and Sterle, O. (2021). Testing the Performance of Multi-Frequency Low-Cost GNSS Receivers and Antennas. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21062029"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taddia, Y., Stecchi, F., and Pellegrinelli, A. (2020). Coastal mapping using dji phantom 4 RTK in post-processing kinematic mode. Drones, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones4020009"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2738","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2265295","article-title":"Direct georeferencing of ultrahigh-resolution UAV imagery","volume":"52","author":"Turner","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2020, February 10). Google Raw GNSS Measurements|Android Developers. Available online: https:\/\/developer.android.com\/guide\/topics\/sensors\/gnss."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3846\/20296991.2015.1011863","article-title":"Compass measurement\u2014Still a suitable surveying method in specific conditions","volume":"41","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geod. Cartogr."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"224","article-title":"3D Mapping by Photogrammetry and LiDAR in Forest Studies","volume":"95","author":"Ahmad","year":"2018","journal-title":"World Sci. News"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.17221\/35\/2012-JFS","article-title":"Methods of digital photogrammetry in forest management in Slovakia","volume":"59","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"292","article-title":"Advances in smartphone positioning in forests: Dual-frequency receivers and raw GNSS data","volume":"94","year":"2020","journal-title":"For. Int. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0922-3","article-title":"Real-time precise point positioning with a low-cost dual-frequency GNSS device","volume":"24","author":"Nie","year":"2020","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2019.01.004","article-title":"Quality analysis of multi-GNSS raw observations and a velocity-aided positioning approach based on smartphones","volume":"63","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Sp. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2023, March 07). Google Decimeter Challenge. Available online: https:\/\/www.kaggle.com\/competitions\/smartphone-decimeter-2022."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2023, March 08). California Department of Transportation Surveys Manual, Available online: https:\/\/dot.ca.gov\/programs\/right-of-way\/surveys-manual-and-interim-guidelines."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/6\/3136\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:55:37Z","timestamp":1760122537000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/6\/3136"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s23063136"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23063136","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]}}}