{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:59:56Z","timestamp":1760147996675,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]],"date-time":"2023-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional scanning technology has been traditionally used in the medical and engineering industries, but these scanners can be expensive or limited in their capabilities. This research aimed to develop low-cost 3D scanning using rotation and immersion in a water-based fluid. This technique uses a reconstruction approach similar to CT scanners but with significantly less instrumentation and cost than traditional CT scanners or other optical scanning techniques. The setup consisted of a container filled with a mixture of water and Xanthan gum. The object to be scanned was submerged at various rotation angles. A stepper motor slide with a needle was used to measure the fluid level increment as the object being scanned was submerged into the container. The results showed that the 3D scanning using immersion in a water-based fluid was feasible and could be adapted to a wide range of object sizes. The technique produced reconstructed images of objects with gaps or irregularly shaped openings in a low-cost fashion. A 3D printed model with a width of 30.7200 \u00b1 0.2388 mm and height of 31.6800 \u00b1 0.3445 mm was compared to its scan to evaluate the precision of the technique. Its width\/height ratio (0.9697 \u00b1 0.0084) overlaps the margin of error of the width\/height ratio of the reconstructed image (0.9649 \u00b1 0.0191), showing statistical similarities. The signal-to-noise ratio was calculated at around 6 dB. Suggestions for future work are made to improve the parameters of this promising, low-cost technique.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23063214","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]],"date-time":"2023-03-17T05:06:01Z","timestamp":1679029561000},"page":"3214","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Three-Dimensional Immersion Scanning Technique: A Scalable Low-Cost Solution for 3D Scanning Using Water-Based Fluid"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5697-3643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo Spyrides Boabaid Pimentel","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Biomedizinische Technik und Informatik, Technische Universit\u00e4t Ilmenau, 98693 Ilmenau, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3871-2890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jens","family":"Haueisen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Biomedizinische Technik und Informatik, Technische Universit\u00e4t Ilmenau, 98693 Ilmenau, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5032","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.5032","article-title":"Low resolution scans can provide a sufficiently accurate, cost-and time-effective alternative to high resolution scans for 3D shape analyses","volume":"6","author":"Marcy","year":"2018","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13760","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.13760","article-title":"The efficacy of computed tomography scanning versus surface scanning in 3D finite element analysis","volume":"10","author":"Rowe","year":"2022","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verykokou, S., and Ioannidis, C. (2023). An Overview on Image-Based and Scanner-Based 3D Modeling Technologies. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020596"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cegh.2018.05.006","article-title":"3D scanning applications in medical field: A literature-based review","volume":"7","author":"Haleem","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"791","article-title":"Others Accuracy Comparison of the Optical 3D Scanner and CT Scanner","volume":"20","author":"Mendricky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e339","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.339","article-title":"Implementation of the computer tomography parallel algorithms with the incomplete set of data","volume":"7","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. 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