{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T17:14:52Z","timestamp":1774718092732,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]],"date-time":"2023-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679616000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this work, a decentralized but synchronized real-world system for smart battery management was designed by using a general controller with cloud computing capability, four charge regulators, and a set of sensorized battery monitors with networking and Bluetooth capabilities. Currently, for real-world applications, battery management systems (BMSs) can be used in the form of distributed control systems where general controllers, charge regulators, and smart monitors and sensors are integrated, such as those proposed in this work, which allow more precise estimations of a large set of important parameters, such as the state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), current, voltage, and temperature, seeking the safety and the extension of the useful life of energy storage systems based on battery banks. The system used is a paradigmatic real-world example of the so-called intelligent battery management systems. One of the contributions made in this work is the realization of a distributed design of a BMS, which adds the benefit of increased system security compared to a fully centralized BMS structure. Another research contribution made in this work is the development of a methodical modeling procedure based on Petri Nets, which establishes, in a visible, organized, and precise way, the set of conditions that will determine the operation of the BMS. If this modeling is not carried out, the threshold values and their conditions remain scattered, not very transparent, and difficult to deal with in an aggregate way.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23073417","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]],"date-time":"2023-03-24T04:31:05Z","timestamp":1679632265000},"page":"3417","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Distributed Intelligent Battery Management System Using a Real-World Cloud Computing System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Emilio","family":"Garc\u00eda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Autom\u00e1tica e Inform\u00e1tica Industrial, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0578-4716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Quiles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Autom\u00e1tica e Inform\u00e1tica Industrial, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2443-9857","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Correcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Autom\u00e1tica e Inform\u00e1tica Industrial, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bopp, G., Gabler, H., Sauer, D., Jossen, A., Mittermeier, J., Bachler, M., Sprau, P., Willer, B., and Wollny, M. (1995, January 23\u201327). A Systematic Effort to Define Evaluation and Performance Parameters and Criteria for Lead Acid batteries in PV Systems. Proceedings of the 13th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Nice, France."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Markvart, T. (1994). Solar Electricity England, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Duryea, S., Islam, S., and Lawrance, W. (1999, January 3\u20137). A battery management system for stand alone photovoltaic energy systems. Proceedings of the Conference Record of the 1999 IEEE Industry Applications Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Thirty-Forth IAS Annual Meeting (Cat. No. 99CH36370)."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2019, July 12). Lead Acid Battery Working\u2013Lifetime Study. Available online: http:\/\/www.power-thru.com\/documents\/The%20Truth%20About%20Batteries%20-%20POWERTHRU%20White%20Paper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11485","DOI":"10.3390\/s150511485","article-title":"A flexible three-in-one microsensor for real-time monitoring of internal temperature, voltage and current of lithium batteries","volume":"15","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, J., Wang, Z., and Liu, P. (2017). Big-Data-Based Thermal Runaway Prognosis of Battery Systems for Electric Vehicles. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201705.0116.v1"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.12.218","article-title":"Applications and thermal management of rechargeable batteries for industrial applications","volume":"170","author":"Jouhara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2014.2336599","article-title":"Adaptive nonlinear model-based fault diagnosis of Li-ion batteries","volume":"62","author":"Sidhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda, E., Quiles, E., Correcher, A., and Morant, F. (2019). Marine NMEA 2000 Smart Sensors for Ship Batteries Supervision and Predictive Fault Diagnosis. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204480"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2023, March 15). Available online: https:\/\/www.victronenergy.com\/upload\/documents\/BMV-712_Smart\/9172-Manual_BMV_and_SmartShunt-pdf-en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Dorn, R., Schwartz, R., and Steurich, B. (2018). Lithium-Ion Batteries: Basics and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122201","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-020-3106-7","article-title":"On large action space in EV charging scheduling optimization","volume":"65","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. China Inform. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2017.08.016","article-title":"Thermal issues about Li-ion batteries and recent progress in battery thermal management systems: A review","volume":"150","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2015.01.127","article-title":"A novel active equalization method for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles","volume":"145","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"2169","article-title":"A sample entropy based prognostics method for lithium- ion batteries using relevance vector machine","volume":"11","author":"Jia","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, M.-K., and Fowler, M. (2020). Sensor Fault Detection and Isolation for Degrading Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles Using Parameter Estimation with Recursive Least Squares. Batteries, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries6010001"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1109\/MIE.2020.2964814","article-title":"Advanced Fault Diagnosis for Lithium-Ion Battery Systems: A Review of Fault Mechanisms, Fault Features, and Diagnosis Procedures","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.09.007","article-title":"Model based insulation fault diagnosis for lithium-ion battery pack in electric vehicles","volume":"131","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.114324","article-title":"A framework for state-of-charge and remaining discharge time prediction using unscented particle filter","volume":"260","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.08.081","article-title":"A method for joint estimation of state-of-charge and available energy of LiFePO4 batteries","volume":"135","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2015.04.062","article-title":"A novel Gaussian model based battery state estimation approach: State-of-energy","volume":"151","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2017.11.019","article-title":"Power capability evaluation for lithium iron phosphate batteries based on multi-parameter constraints estimation","volume":"374","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10949","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2020.3034855","article-title":"Dynamic Bayesian network based lithium-ion battery health prognosis for electric vehicles","volume":"68","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmsy.2021.11.006","article-title":"Digital twin and cloud-side-end collaboration for intelligent battery management system","volume":"62","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabbar, H.A., Othman, A.M., and Abdussami, M.R. (2021). Review of Battery Management Systems (BMS) Development and Industrial Standards. Technologies, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/technologies9020028"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnieri, E., Boccia, L., Amoroso, F., Amendola, G., and Cappuccino, G. (2019). Improved Efficiency Management Strategy for Battery-Based Energy Storage Systems. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8121459"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sumsurooah, S., He, Y., Torchio, M., Kouramas, K., Guida, B., Cuomo, F., Atkin, J., Bozhko, S., Renzetti, A., and Russo, A. (2021). ENIGMA\u2014A Centralised Supervisory Controller for Enhanced Onboard Electrical Energy Management with Model in the Loop Demonstration. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14175518"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aiello, O. (2020). Electromagnetic Susceptibility of Battery Management Systems\u2019 ICs for Electric Vehicles: Experimental Study. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9030510"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2023, March 11). PRIMES: An Intelligent Power Regulation Using Innovative Modules for Energy Supervision. Available online: https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/article\/id\/173624-smart-control-of-aircraft-electrical-loads."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, March 11). More Open Electrical Technologies (MOET). Available online: https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/30861."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2023, March 11). EPOCAL: An Electrical POwer Center for Aeronautical Loads. Available online: https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/323408."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isatra.2020.07.032","article-title":"Multi-objective adaptive sliding manifold control for More Electric Aircraft","volume":"107","author":"Canciello","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISA Trans."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3379574","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3379574","article-title":"Review on Li-Ion Battery with Battery Management System in Electrical Vehicle","volume":"2022","author":"Ramkumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci.Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.126044","article-title":"Intelligent algorithms and control strategies for battery management system in electric vehicles: Progress, challenges and future outlook","volume":"292","author":"Lipu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean.Prod."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Casals, L.C., Garc\u00eda, B.A., and Ben\u00edtez, M.M.G. (2017). Project Management and Engineering Research, Springer."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1109\/60.124547","article-title":"A mathematical model for lead-acid batteries","volume":"7","author":"Salameh","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Energy Convers."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1002\/pip.4670010405","article-title":"A general battery model for PV system simulation","volume":"1","author":"Copetti","year":"1993","journal-title":"Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1109\/59.898088","article-title":"New dynamical models of lead-acid batteries","volume":"15","author":"Ceraolo","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Syst."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1109\/TEC.2006.874229","article-title":"Accurate electrical battery model capable of predicting runtime and IV performance","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Energy Convers."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(02)00190-8","article-title":"Mathematical modeling of lithium-ion and nickel battery systems","volume":"110","author":"Gomadam","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.03.101","article-title":"A review on prognostics and health monitoring of Li-ion battery","volume":"196","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compchemeng.2012.02.003","article-title":"State-of-charge estimation for lithium-ion batteries under various operating conditions using an equivalent circuit model","volume":"41","author":"Cho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Wang, J., Li, S., and Cao, B. (2016). A method to simultaneously detect the current sensor fault and estimate the state of energy for batteries in electric vehicles. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081328"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.01.070","article-title":"Proposal of novel equivalent circuit for electrochemical impedance analysis of commercially available lithium ion battery","volume":"205","author":"Osaka","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Delacourt, C., Forgez, C., and Pelissier, S. (2011, January 6\u20139). Study of graphite\/NCA Li-ion Cell Degradation During Accelerated Aging Tests\u2014Data Analysis of the SimStock Project. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VPPC.2011.6043110"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guenther, C., Barillas, J.K., Stumpp, S., and Danzer, M.A. (2012, January 14\u201317). Adynamic battery model for simulation of battery-to-grid applications. Proceedings of the 2012 3rd IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT Europe), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISGTEurope.2012.6465855"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2017.02.023","article-title":"A new approach to the internal thermal management of cylindrical battery cells for automotive applications","volume":"346","author":"Worwood","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lai, T.C., Tsang, K.F., Liu, Y., and Lai, L.L. (2019, January 12\u201314). A Temperature Prediction Method of Valve-regulated Lead-acid Battery. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 28th International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIE.2019.8781271"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.05.040","article-title":"A review on lithium-ion battery ageing mechanisms and estimations for automotive applications","volume":"241","author":"Deguilhem","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Eddahech, A. (2019, July 12). Modelisation duVieillissement et Determination de l\u2019Etat de Sante de Batteries Lithium-Ion pour Application Vehicule Electrique et Hybride. Available online: https:\/\/tel.archives-ouvertes.fr\/tel-00957678."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2005.01.006","article-title":"Ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries","volume":"147","author":"Vetter","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1021\/ed061p494","article-title":"The development of the Arrhenius equation","volume":"61","author":"Laidler","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2014.02.012","article-title":"A holistic aging model for Li(NiMnCo)O2 based 18650 lithium-ion batteries","volume":"257","author":"Schmalstieg","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delaille, A., Grolleau, S., and Duclaud, F. (2013, January 27\u201328). SIMCAL Project: Calendar aging results obtained on a panel of 6 commercial Li-ion cells. Proceedings of the Electrochemical Energy Summit de l\u2019Electrochemical Society, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1149\/MA2013-02\/14\/1191"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guena, T., and Leblanc, P. (2006, January 10\u201314). How Depth of Discharge A\u2000ects the Cycle Life of Lithium-Metal-Polymer Batteries. Proceedings of the INTELEC 06\u2014Twenty-Eighth International Telecommunications Energy Conference, Providence, RI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INTLEC.2006.251641"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarasketa-Zabala, E., Laresgoiti, I., Alava, I., Rivas, M., Villarreal, I., and Blanco, F. (2013, January 17\u201320). Validation of the methodology for lithium-ion batteries lifetime prognosis. Proceedings of the EVS27 Electric Vehicle Symposium 2013, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/EVS.2013.6914730"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Lam, L. (2011). A Practical Circuit based Model for State of Health Estimation of Li ion Battery Cells in Electric Vehicles. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Technology Delft]."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2013.08.032","article-title":"Parametrisation of the influence of di\u2000erent cycling conditions on the capacity fade and the internal resistance increase for lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide\/graphite cells","volume":"707","author":"Nieho","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1109\/MIM.2008.4579269","article-title":"Prognostics in battery health management","volume":"11","author":"Goebel","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Instrum. Meas. Mag."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.11.146","article-title":"Health diagnosis and remaining useful life prognostics of lithium-ion batteries using data-driven methods","volume":"239","author":"Nuhic","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2014.09.146","article-title":"Combined State of Charge and State of Health estimation over lithium-ion battery cell cycle lifespan for electric vehicles","volume":"273","author":"Zou","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Dai, H., Wei, X., and Sun, Z. (2009, January 7\u201310). A new SOH prediction concept for the power lithium-ion battery used on HEVs. Proceedings of the 5th IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, VPPC 09, Dearborn, MI, USA."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.12928\/telkomnika.v17i3.12241","article-title":"VRLA battery state of health estimation based on charging time","volume":"17","author":"Zainuri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Telkomnika"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(1988). Trend Analysis Technique (Standard No. NASA-STD-8070.5)."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2017.11.008","article-title":"Lead batteries for utility energy storage: A review","volume":"15","author":"May","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2019, October 10). Megger Batery Testing Guide. art.nr. ZP-AD01E Doc. AD0009AE 2009. Available online: https:\/\/us.megger.com\/support\/technical-library?searchtext=&searchmode=anyword&application2=0&type=6;&application=0&order=0."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"McCluer, S. (2011). Battery Technology for Data Centers and Network Rooms: Lead-Acid Battery Options, Schneider Electric. APC White Paper."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2017). Technical Manual for Chairman Series Batteries, Concorde Battery Corporation."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2005.11.005","article-title":"Complexity in battery systems: Thermal runaway in VRLA batteries","volume":"158","author":"Catherino","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2003.09.078","article-title":"Thermal runaway in valve-regulated lead-acid cells and the e\u2000ect of separator structure","volume":"133","author":"Culpin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Ho, C.M., and Steves, K. Newinsights into thermal runaway of valve regulated lead-acid batteries. Proceedings of the International Stationary Battery Conference, Battcon, Miami Beach, FL, USA. Available online: https:\/\/www.sbsbattery.com\/PDFs\/VRLAThermRunawayStorageBatterySystems.pdf."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"McCluer, S. (2012). Battery Technology for Data Centers and Network Rooms: VRLA Reliability and Safety, Schneider Electric."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Feder, D.O., and Hlavac, M.J. (November, January 30). Analysis and interpretation of conductance measurements used to assess the state-of-health of valve regulated lead acid batteries. Proceedings of the Intelec 94, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Cotton, C.B., Sheppard, D., Lim, R., Cotton, S.D., and Jump, M. (2009). System and Method for Remote Monitoring of Battery Condition. (7,768,238), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deshpande, S., Shaffer, D., Szymborski, J., Barling, L., and Hawkins, J. (1999, January 9). Intelligent monitoring system satisfies customer needs for continuous monitoring and assurance on VRLA batteries. Proceedings of the 21st International Telecommunications Energy Conference. INTELEC\u201999, Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1109\/INTLEC.1999.794126"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, T., Makwana, D., Adhikaree, A., Vagdoda, J., and Lee, Y. (2018). Cloud-Based Battery Condition Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis Platform for Large-Scale Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems. Energies, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/en11010125"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2020.101557","article-title":"Digital twin for battery systems: Cloud battery management system with online state-of-charge and state-of-health estimation","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyai.2021.100088","article-title":"Implementation for a cloud battery management system based on the CHAIN framework","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy AI"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, M.K., Panchal, S., Khang, T.D., Panchal, K., Fraser, R., and Fowler, M. (2022). Concept review of a cloud-based smart battery management system for lithium-ion batteries: Feasibility, logistics, and functionality. Batteries, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries8020019"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda, E., Quiles, E., Correcher, A., and Morant, F. (2022). Predictive Diagnosis Based on Predictor Symptoms for Isolated Photovoltaic Systems Using MPPT Charge Regulators. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207819"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Rusch, W., Vassallo, K., and Hart, G. (2023, March 15). Understanding the Real Differences Between GEL and AGM Batteries-You Can\u2019t Change Physics. Available online: https:\/\/www.baebatteriesusa.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/03\/Understanding-The-Real-Differences-Between-Gel-AGM-Batteries-Rusch-2007.pdf."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s11465-018-0516-8","article-title":"A brief review on key technologies in the battery management system of electric vehicles","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mech. Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/7\/3417\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:02:11Z","timestamp":1760122931000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/7\/3417"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s23073417"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23073417","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]]}}}