{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T22:34:12Z","timestamp":1762900452082,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,29]],"date-time":"2023-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Programa Especial de Consolidaci\u00f3n de Investigadores","award":["20222097","20230699"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20222097","20230699"]}]},{"name":"Karen Roa Tort","award":["20222097","20230699"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20222097","20230699"]}]},{"name":"Josu\u00e9 Daniel Rivera Fern\u00e1ndez","award":["20222097","20230699"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20222097","20230699"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Worldwide, breast cancer is the most common type of cancer that mainly affects women. Several diagnosis techniques based on optical instrumentation and image analysis have been developed, and these are commonly used in conjunction with conventional diagnostic devices such as mammographs, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging of the breast. The cost of using these instruments is increasing, and developing countries, whose deaths indices due to breast cancer are high, cannot access conventional diagnostic methods and have even less access to newer techniques. Other studies, based on the analysis of images acquired by traditional methods, require high resolutions and knowledge of the origin of the captures in order to avoid errors. For this reason, the design of a low-cost diffuse optical mammography system for biomedical image processing in breast cancer diagnosis is presented. The system combines the acquisition of breast tissue photographs, diffuse optical reflectance (as a biophotonics technique), and the processing of digital images for the study and diagnosis of breast cancer. The system was developed in the form of a medical examination table with a 638 nm red-light source, using light-emitted diode technology (LED) and a low-cost web camera for the acquisition of breast tissue images. The system is automatic, and its control, through a graphical user interface (GUI), saves costs and allows for the subsequent analysis of images using a digital image-processing algorithm. The results obtained allow for the possibility of planning in vivo measurements. In addition, the acquisition of images every 30\u00b0 around the breast tissue could be used in future research in order to perform a three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and an analysis of the captures through deep learning techniques. These could be combined with virtual, augmented, or mixed reality environments to predict the position of tumors, increase the likelihood of a correct medical diagnosis, and develop a training system for specialists. Furthermore, the system allows for the possibility to develop analysis of optical characterization for new phantom studies in breast cancer diagnosis through bioimaging techniques.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23094390","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]],"date-time":"2023-05-01T12:12:11Z","timestamp":1682943131000},"page":"4390","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Design of a Low-Cost Diffuse Optical Mammography System for Biomedical Image Processing in Breast Cancer Diagnosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2967-6736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josu\u00e9 D.","family":"Rivera-Fern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Optomecatr\u00f3nica, UPIIH, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Distrito de Educaci\u00f3n, Salud, Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n, San Agust\u00edn Tlaxiaca 42162, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6780-6370","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karen","family":"Roa-Tort","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Optomecatr\u00f3nica, UPIIH, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Distrito de Educaci\u00f3n, Salud, Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n, San Agust\u00edn Tlaxiaca 42162, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3353-6015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suren","family":"Stolik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Biofot\u00f3nica, ESIME ZAC, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de Mexico 07320, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6648-7905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alma","family":"Valor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Biofot\u00f3nica, ESIME ZAC, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de Mexico 07320, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6383-1675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego A.","family":"Fabila-Bustos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Optomecatr\u00f3nica, UPIIH, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Distrito de Educaci\u00f3n, Salud, Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n, San Agust\u00edn Tlaxiaca 42162, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Gabriela","family":"de la Rosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hospital de Especialidades del ni\u00f1o y la Mujer Dr. Felipe Nu\u00f1ez Lara, Santiago de Quer\u00e9taro 76090, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8164-2835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Macaria","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Ch\u00e1vez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Optomecatr\u00f3nica, UPIIH, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Distrito de Educaci\u00f3n, Salud, Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n, San Agust\u00edn Tlaxiaca 42162, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 M.","family":"de la Rosa-V\u00e1zquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Biofot\u00f3nica, ESIME ZAC, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de Mexico 07320, Mexico"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2023, March 02). WHO and MD Anderson Launch a New Partnership to Reduce the Global Burden of Women\u2019s Cancers. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/27-10-2022-who-and-md-anderson-launch-a-new-partnership-to-reduce-the-global-burden-of-women-s-cancers."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"International Agency for Research on Cancer (2023, March 02). Cancer Today. Available online: https:\/\/gco.iarc.fr\/today\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado (2023, March 02). D\u00eda Mundial de la Lucha Contra el C\u00e1ncer de Mama. Available online: https:\/\/www.gob.mx\/issste\/articulos\/dia-mundial-de-la-lucha-contra-el-cancer-de-mama-131191?idiom=es."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"INEGI (2023, February 03). COMUNICADO DE PRENSA N\u00daM. 591\/22. Available online: https:\/\/www.inegi.org.mx\/contenidos\/saladeprensa\/aproposito\/2022\/EAP_CANMAMA22.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Secretar\u00eda de Salud (2023, March 02). Defunciones de Mujeres de 25 a\u00f1os o M\u00e1s Por Tumor Maligno de Mama, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico, 2000\u20132015. Available online: https:\/\/www.gob.mx\/cms\/uploads\/attachment\/file\/269549\/MortalidadCaMa2000a2015.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Centro Nacional de Equidad de G\u00e9nero y Salud Reproductiva (2023, March 03). Informaci\u00f3n Estad\u00edstica C\u00e1ncer de Mama. Available online: https:\/\/www.gob.mx\/salud\/cnegsr\/acciones-y-programas\/informacion-estadistica-cancer-de-mama."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"da Silva Alves, C., Forte Gomes, M.M., and Mattos Brasil, L. (2015). Mammography Techniques and Review, IntechOpen. Chapter 6."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (2023, March 02). La Autoexploraci\u00f3n, Gobierno de M\u00e9xico. Available online: https:\/\/www.imss.gob.mx\/salud-en-linea\/cancer-mama\/autoexploracion."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s43055-020-00175-5","article-title":"A review of various modalities in breast imaging: Technical aspects and clinical outcomes","volume":"51","author":"Iranmakani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Radiol. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bigio, I.J., and Fantini, S. (2016). Quantitative Biomedical Optics. Theory, Methods and Applications, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139029797"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Corral Mart\u00ednez, L.F. (2015). Tomograf\u00eda \u00d3ptica Difusa Por Transiluminaci\u00f3n. [Ph.D Thesis, Centro de Investigaciones en \u00d3ptica, A.C.]."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"721","article-title":"Transillumination as an aid in the diagnosis of breast lesions","volume":"48","author":"Cuttler","year":"1929","journal-title":"Surg. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-011-0404-4","article-title":"Near-Infrared Optical Mammography for Breast Cancer Detection with Intrinsic Contrast","volume":"40","author":"Fantini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044005","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2337546","article-title":"In vivo absorption, scattering, and physiologic properties of 58 malignant breast tumors determined by broadband diffuse optical spectroscopy","volume":"11","author":"Cerussi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2020.109067","article-title":"A review of optical breast imaging: Multi-modality systems for breast cancer diagnosis","volume":"129","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walter, E.L., and Lilge, L. (2019, January 2\u20133). Optical breast spectroscopy as a pre-screening tool to identify women who benefit most from mammography. Proceedings of the Optics and Biophotonics in Low-Resource Settings V, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2510256"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, W., Wang, Z., Chen, K., Li, Z., and Liao, Q. (2019, January 23\u201327). A Comprehensive Classification System for Breast Cancer Diagnosis Based on Dynamic Optical Breast Imaging. Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8856744"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46008","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.22.4.046008","article-title":"Multimodal breast cancer imaging using coregistered dynamic diffuse optical tomography and digital breast tomosynthesis","volume":"22","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6468","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.12.6468","article-title":"Frequency-domain techniques enhance optical mammography: Initial clinical results","volume":"94","author":"Franceschini","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13127","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70103-0","article-title":"Development of digital breast tomosynthesis and diffuse optical tomography fusion imaging for breast cancer detection","volume":"10","author":"Chae","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13058-015-0578-z","article-title":"Macroscopic optical physiological parameters correlate with microscopic proliferation and vessel area breast cancer signatures","volume":"17","author":"Chung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1428290","article-title":"Multispectral near-infrared tomography: A case study in compensating for water and lipid content in hemoglobin imaging of the breast","volume":"7","author":"McBride","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.5306\/wjco.v2.i1.64","article-title":"Optical mammography: Diffuse optical imaging of breast cancer","volume":"2","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/bcr3485","article-title":"Assessing tumor contrast in radiographically dense breast tissue using Diffuse Optical Spectroscopic Imaging (DOSI)","volume":"15","author":"Leproux","year":"2013","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650007","DOI":"10.1142\/S1793545816500073","article-title":"Development of a handheld diffuse optical breast cancer assessment probe","volume":"9","author":"Shokoufi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Innov. Opt. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1186\/bcr1358","article-title":"Imaging in breast cancer: Diffuse optics in breast cancer: Detecting tumors in pre-menopausal women and monitoring neoadjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"7","author":"Tromberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1089\/photob.2019.4676","article-title":"Penetration Profiles of Visible and Near-Infrared Lasers and Light-Emitting Diode Light Through the Head Tissues in Animal and Human Species: A Review of Literature","volume":"37","author":"Salehpour","year":"2019","journal-title":"Photobiomodulation Photomed. Laser Surg."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Beutel, J., Kundel, H.L., and Van Metter, R.L. (2000). Handbook of Medical Imaging, Volume 1. Physics and Psychophysics, SPIE Press."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suman, G., and Patra, A. (2020). Current Advances in Breast Cancer Research: A Molecular Approach, Bentham Science Publishers.","DOI":"10.2174\/97898114514471200101"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Wickert, J., and Lewis, K. (2012). An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Cengage Learning."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40683","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40683","article-title":"Non-invasive optical estimate of tissue composition to differentiate malignant from benign breast lesions: A pilot study","volume":"7","author":"Taroni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2023, March 01). Logitech. Available online: https:\/\/www.logitech.com\/es-mx\/product\/hd-webcam-c270#specification-tabular."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"MathWorks (2023, March 02). PSNR MathWorks Support. Available online: https:\/\/la.mathworks.com\/help\/vision\/ref\/psnr.html."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2010.08.016","article-title":"Scene and screen center bias early eye movements in scene viewing","volume":"50","author":"Bindemann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"185","article-title":"Semiolog\u00eda de la Mama","volume":"4","author":"Saffie","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Obstet. Ginecol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2749","DOI":"10.1007\/s00289-019-02869-x","article-title":"Polysiloxanes as polymer matrices in biomedical engineering: Their interesting properties as the reason for the use in medical sciences","volume":"77","year":"2020","journal-title":"Polym. Bull."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1120\/jacmp.v12i1.3340","article-title":"Breast phantom with silicone implant for evaluation in conventional mammography","volume":"12","author":"Silva","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Clin. Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4302\/plp.2012.1.14","article-title":"Breast phantom for comparison X-ray and polarimetric optical tomography imaging","volume":"4","author":"Sobotka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photonics Lett. Pol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e10308","article-title":"Anthropomorphic Polydimethylsiloxane silicone-based phantom for Diffuse Optical Imaging","volume":"8","author":"Vera","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1255\/jnirs.1171","article-title":"Study of inks used in biomedical optics phantoms: Stability and ageing","volume":"23","author":"Pardini","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Near Infrared Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.5.002037","article-title":"Determination of reference values for optical properties of liquid phantoms based on Intralipid and India ink","volume":"5","author":"Spinelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"\u00c1vila Chaurand, R., Prado Le\u00f3n, L.R., and Gonz\u00e1lez Mu\u00f1oz, E.L. (2007). Dimensiones Antropom\u00e9tricas de Poblaci\u00f3n Latinoamericana, Universidad de Guadalajara."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2023, March 06). American Cancer Sociaty. Available online: https:\/\/www.cancer.org\/cancer\/breast-cancer\/understanding-a-breast-cancer-diagnosis\/stages-of-breast-cancer.html."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1097\/00006534-199702000-00015","article-title":"Recipient Vessels in Free-Flap Breast Reconstruction: A Study of the Internal Mammary and Thoracodorsal Vessels","volume":"99","author":"Feng","year":"1997","journal-title":"Plast. Reconstr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1600249","article-title":"Breast-Cancer Tumor Size, Overdiagnosis, and Mammography Screening Effectiveness","volume":"375","author":"Welch","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.3747\/co.20.1364","article-title":"Are two-centimeter breast cancers large or small?","volume":"20","author":"Narod","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1475-1313.2002.00028.x","article-title":"Optimal green (red-free) digital imaging of conjunctival vasculature","volume":"22","author":"Owen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ophtalmic. Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"192","article-title":"Central Retinal Vein Occlusion: An Approach for the Detection and Extraction of Retinal Blood Vessels","volume":"10","author":"Packyanathan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2023, February 26). Avantes North America, Buckets of Blood: Absorbance Spectra Comparison with Fake Blood. Available online: https:\/\/avantesusa.com\/spectra-feature-buckets-of-blood\/."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E23","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.386037","article-title":"Evaluation of transfer learning of pre-trained CNNs applied to breast cancer detection on infrared images","volume":"59","author":"Chaves","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.481092","article-title":"Compact breast shape acquisition system for improving diffuse optical tomography image reconstructions","volume":"14","author":"Vanegas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2019.109542","article-title":"Breast c\u00e1ncer diagnosis using termography and convolutinal neural networks","volume":"137","author":"Ekici","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elsevier Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Lin Yang, N. (2018). Portable Breast Light Assembly. (USD824: 528 S), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Wist, A.O., Pandey, R.N., and Fatouros, P.P. (1990). Early Detection of Breast Cancer. (4,945,239), U.S. Patent."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/9\/4390\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:26:34Z","timestamp":1760124394000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/9\/4390"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,29]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s23094390"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23094390","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,29]]}}}