{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T06:55:44Z","timestamp":1779346544102,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,10]],"date-time":"2023-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683676800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Major Research Instrument Development Project by the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["52027813"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52027813"]}]},{"name":"Major Research Instrument Development Project by the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["K2021G001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2021G001"]}]},{"name":"Major Research Instrument Development Project by the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022YJ179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YJ179"]}]},{"name":"Major Research Instrument Development Project by the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["HJJ23J005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HJJ23J005"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Research and Development Plan of China National Railway Group Co., Ltd.","award":["52027813"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52027813"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Research and Development Plan of China National Railway Group Co., Ltd.","award":["K2021G001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2021G001"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Research and Development Plan of China National Railway Group Co., Ltd.","award":["2022YJ179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YJ179"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Research and Development Plan of China National Railway Group Co., Ltd.","award":["HJJ23J005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HJJ23J005"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015282","name":"Scientific Research Projects of China Academy of Railway Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52027813"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52027813"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015282","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015282","name":"Scientific Research Projects of China Academy of Railway Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K2021G001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2021G001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015282","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015282","name":"Scientific Research Projects of China Academy of Railway Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YJ179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YJ179"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015282","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015282","name":"Scientific Research Projects of China Academy of Railway Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HJJ23J005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HJJ23J005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015282","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Rail Flaw Detection and Inspection of China Railway Group by CARS","award":["52027813"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52027813"]}]},{"name":"Rail Flaw Detection and Inspection of China Railway Group by CARS","award":["K2021G001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2021G001"]}]},{"name":"Rail Flaw Detection and Inspection of China Railway Group by CARS","award":["2022YJ179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YJ179"]}]},{"name":"Rail Flaw Detection and Inspection of China Railway Group by CARS","award":["HJJ23J005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HJJ23J005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid development of high-speed and heavy-haul railways caused rapid rail defects and sudden failure. This requires more advanced rail inspection, i.e., real-time accurate identification and evaluation for rail defects. However, existing applications cannot meet future demand. In this paper, different types of rail defects are introduced. Afterwards, methods that have the potential to achieve rapid accurate detection and evaluation of rail defects are summarized, including ultrasonic testing, electromagnetic testing, visual testing, and some integrated methods in the field. Finally, advice on rail inspection is given, such as synchronously utilizing the ultrasonic testing, magnetic flux leakage, and visual testing for multi-part detection. Specifically, synchronously using the magnetic flux leakage and visual testing technologies can detect and evaluate surface and subsurface defects, and UT is used to detect internal defects in the rail. This will obtain full rail information, to prevent sudden failure, then ensure train ride safety.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23104627","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]],"date-time":"2023-05-11T01:37:24Z","timestamp":1683769044000},"page":"4627","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Detection of Rail Defects Using NDT Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Longhui","family":"Xiong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Department, China Academy of Railway Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9655-2229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guoqing","family":"Jing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingru","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiubo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuhua","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2009.09.003","article-title":"Introduction to the damage tolerance behaviour of railway rails\u2013a review","volume":"76","author":"Zerbst","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17576\/jkukm-2019-31(1)-01","article-title":"A review on existing sensors and devices for inspecting railway infrastructure","volume":"31","author":"Falamarzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Kejuruter."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2022, December 08). Overview of Nondestructive Testing (NDT). Available online: https:\/\/inspectioneering.com\/tag\/nondestructive+testing."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1243\/09544097JRRT209","article-title":"A review on non-destructive evaluation of rails: State-of-the-art and future development","volume":"222","author":"Papaelias","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.12700\/APH.19.3.2022.3.14","article-title":"A review of research on detection and evaluation of the rail surface defects","volume":"19","author":"Kou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Polytech. Hung"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1763","article-title":"Review of railway defect non-destructive testing and monitoring","volume":"37","author":"Tian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020801","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4037295","article-title":"Rail flaw detection technologies for safer, reliable transportation: A review","volume":"140","author":"Alahakoon","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"69","article-title":"Characteristics Evaluation of RCF Crack on Rail Surface Based on Eddy Current Testing and Neural Network","volume":"42","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.130409","article-title":"Systematic review: Ultrasonic technology for detecting rail defects","volume":"368","author":"Xue","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2022, December 08). Introduction To Nondestructive Testing. Available online: https:\/\/www.asnt.org\/MajorSiteSections\/About\/Introduction_to_Nondestructive_Testing.aspx."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2022, December 08). Ultrasonic Testing. Available online: https:\/\/www.nde-ed.org\/NDETechniques\/Ultrasonics\/index.xhtml."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2022, December 08). Rail Flaw Detection Solution. Available online: http:\/\/www.702dongfang.com\/riis\/j_znzb_zsjcmk_ggts.html."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1177\/03611981211021547","article-title":"Deep learning for the detection and recognition of rail defects in ultrasound B-scan images","volume":"2675","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Corporation, C.R. (2017). Dual-Track Rail Ultrasonic Flaw Detector Provisional Technical Protocol, China Railway Corporation."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Xiong, L., Liu, X., Liu, Q., Zhang, Y., and Shi, Y. (2022). Rapid Detection Technology for Shallow Surface Defects of Rails in Service, China Railway."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"131","article-title":"Key Technology to Autonomous Ultrasonic Detection System of Rail Flaw Detection Car","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Administration, S. (2021). Rail Heavy-Duty Maintenance Machinery\u2014Rail Flaw Detection Vehicle, Standardization Administration."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2020.106227","article-title":"A review of ultrasonic testing applications in additive manufacturing: Defect evaluation, material characterization, and process control","volume":"108","author":"Honarvar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2020.112086","article-title":"Development of phased array ultrasonic system for detecting rail cracks","volume":"311","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Gao, X., Peng, C., Wang, Z., and Li, X. (2016, January 22\u201324). Rail inspection Research based on High Speed Processing Phased Array Technology. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Far East NDT New Technology & Application Forum (FENDT), Nanchang, Jiangxi.","DOI":"10.1109\/FENDT.2016.7992020"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2022, December 09). High Speed Ultrasonic Testing. Available online: https:\/\/www.speno.com.au\/solutions."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"19650","article-title":"Research on heavy haul railway inspection system based on the phased array technique","volume":"40","author":"Xiaofeng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"112","article-title":"Study on Fast Phased Array Rail Inspection Technology of Datong-Zhungeer Railway","volume":"60","author":"Hui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Railw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2022, December 09). Innerspec. EMAT Technology. Available online: https:\/\/zh.innerspec.com\/emat-technology."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Chahbaz, A., Brassard, M., and Pelletier, A. (2022, December 09). Mobile Inspection System for Rail Integrity Assessment. 2011. Available online: https:\/\/www.ndt.net\/article\/wcndt00\/papers\/idn533\/idn533.htm."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"369","article-title":"Ultrasonic detection of surface-breaking railhead defects","volume":"50","author":"Edwards","year":"2008","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2014.03.007","article-title":"A new electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) design for operation on rail","volume":"65","author":"Petcher","year":"2014","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, Z., Wang, K., Kang, L., Zhai, G., and Wang, S. (2010, January 15\u201317). Rail flaw detection system based on electromagnetic acoustic technique. Proceedings of the 2010 5th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, Taichung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIEA.2010.5516784"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Monchalin, J.-P. (2007). Ultrasonic and Advanced Methods for Nondestructive Testing and Material Characterization, World Scientific."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Drain, L. (2019). Laser Ultrasonics: Techniques and Applications, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2022, December 12). Laser-Ultrasonics-Lus. Available online: https:\/\/www.recendt.at\/en\/LUS.html."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"10","article-title":"Overview and Future development of Rails Nondestructive Inspection","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nondestruct. Test."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Alahakoon, S., Pathak, M., Sun, Y., Spiryagin, M., and Cole, C. (2018). ICRT 2017: Railway Development, Operations, and Maintenance, American Society of Civil Engineers."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Pathak, M., Alahakoon, S., Sun, Y.Q., Spiryagin, M., and Cole, C. (2018). ICRT 2017: Railway Development, Operations, and Maintenance, American Society of Civil Engineers."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106006","DOI":"10.3788\/IRLA20174601.106006","article-title":"Rail steel flaw inspection based on laser ultrasonic method","volume":"46","author":"Gangyang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infrared Laser Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Cerniglia, D., Garcia, G., Kalay, S., and Prior, F. (2006, January 30). Application of laser induced ultrasound for rail inspection. Proceedings of the World Congress on Railway Research, Milan, Italy."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2022, December 12). Eddy Current Testing. Available online: https:\/\/www.twi-global.com\/technical-knowledge\/job-knowledge\/eddy-current-testing-123."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2022.112213","article-title":"Study on high-speed rail defect detection methods based on ECT, MFL testing and ACFM","volume":"206","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"454","article-title":"High Speed Track Defect Detection Methods Based on Enhanced Magnetic Field Eddy Currents","volume":"32","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"China Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.110351","article-title":"Research on defect detection of high-speed rail based on multi-frequency excitation composite electromagnetic method","volume":"187","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2022, December 12). Rail Inspection Walking Sticks Robust, Portable & User-Friendly. Available online: https:\/\/www.sperryrail.com\/pedestrian.php."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Dey, A., Thomas, H.M., and Pohl, R. (2008, January 25\u201328). The important role of eddy current testing in railway track maintenance. Proceedings of the 17th World Conference on Non-Destructive Testing (Proceedings), Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Pohl, R., Krull, R., and Meierhofer, R. (2006, January 25\u201329). A new eddy current instrument in a grinding train. Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on NDT (European Federation for Non-Destructive Testing), Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvarenga, T.A., Carvalho, A.L., Honorio, L.M., Cerqueira, A.S., Filho, L.M., and Nobrega, R.A. (2021). Detection and classification system for rail surface defects based on Eddy current. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21237937"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Wang, J., Dai, Q., and Lautala, P. (2020). Real-Time Rail Defect Detection with Eddy Current (EC) Technique: Signal Processing and Case Studies of Rail Samples, National University Rail Center (NURail)."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Anandika, R. (2021). Non-Destructive Measurement of Near-Surface Cracks in Railheads with Focus on Ultrasonic Inspections. [Ph.D. Thesis, Lule\u00e5 University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, S.-G., Lee, T.-G., Park, S.-J., Park, J.-W., and Seo, J.-M. (2021). Natural Rail Surface Defect Inspection and Analysis Using 16-Channel Eddy Current System. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11178107"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1698","article-title":"Review on advances in pulsed eddy current nondestructive testing technology","volume":"37","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2015.09.011","article-title":"Multiple cracks detection and visualization using magnetic flux leakage and eddy current pulsed thermography","volume":"234","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A: Phys."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, B., Wu, J., Tu, H., Tang, J., and Kang, Y. (2022). A Review of Magnetic Flux Leakage Nondestructive Testing. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15207362"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2022, December 20). Overview of Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL). Available online: https:\/\/inspectioneering.com\/tag\/mfl."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y., Zhang, S., Wang, P., and Ji, K. (2021). A Method for Detecting Surface Defects in Railhead by Magnetic Flux Leakage. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11209489"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2018.04.011","article-title":"3D simulation and experiment on high speed rail MFL inspection","volume":"98","author":"Antipov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ndt E Int."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-smt.2018.5651","article-title":"Enhancement method of magnetic flux leakage signals for rail track surface defect detection","volume":"14","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"IET Sci. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"39","article-title":"Research on detection technology of Top-Surface damage and magnetic leakage based on large flaw detection vehicle for rails","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"China Railw."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"354","article-title":"Application of the ACFM inspection method to rail and rail vehicles","volume":"47","author":"Topp","year":"2005","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2011.11.010","article-title":"Modelling of the response of an ACFM sensor to rail and rail wheel RCF cracks","volume":"46","author":"Nicholson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ndt E Int."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2008.12.008","article-title":"High-speed inspection of rails using ACFM techniques","volume":"42","author":"Papaelias","year":"2009","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"85","article-title":"Development of autonomous ACFM rail inspection techniques","volume":"53","author":"Rowshandel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2022, December 25). RIIS 1005 Railway Inspection Robot. Available online: https:\/\/www.shenhaorobotics.com\/railway-inspection-robot\/."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"139","article-title":"Development of the On-Board Track Inspection System Based on Computer Vision","volume":"34","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"91","article-title":"Development and Application of Onboard Patrol Inspection Technologies for Rail Status","volume":"664","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"China Railw."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, M., Singh, S., Jaiswal, J., and Hempshall, J. (2006, January 16\u201317). Autonomous rail track inspection using vision based system. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence for Homeland Security and Personal Safety, Alexandria, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIHSPS.2006.313313"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2022, December 25). Video Inspection. Available online: https:\/\/tvema.com\/640."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, Z., Li, Q., Mao, Q., and Zou, Q. (2017). A 3D Laser Profiling System for Rail Surface Defect Detection. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081791"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"2271","article-title":"Unsupervised Saliency Detection of Rail Surface Defects Using Stereoscopic Images","volume":"17","author":"Niu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2022.3220285","article-title":"Deep Learning and Machine Vision-Based Inspection of Rail Surface Defects","volume":"71","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santur, Y., Karak\u00f6se, M., and Akin, E. (2017, January 16\u201317). A new rail inspection method based on deep learning using laser cameras. Proceedings of the 2017 International Artificial Intelligence and Data Processing Symposium (IDAP), Malatya, T\u00fcrkiye.","DOI":"10.1109\/IDAP.2017.8090245"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2018.05.007","article-title":"Automated vision inspection of rail surface cracks: A double-layer data-driven framework","volume":"92","author":"Zhuang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2017.07.002","article-title":"Composite magnetic flux leakage detection method for pipelines using alternating magnetic field excitation","volume":"91","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6270","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3040996","article-title":"Study on the Laser-EMAT integrated system for simultaneously measuring the width and depth of metal plate","volume":"21","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1925","article-title":"A Hybrid PECT\/EMAT NDT Based on Wavelet Analysis","volume":"30","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"China Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2021.108282","article-title":"Acoustic and ultrasonic techniques for defect detection and condition monitoring in water and sewerage pipes: A review","volume":"183","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., Liu, Z., Yi, D., Yu, X., Sha, X., Li, L., Sun, H., Zhan, Z., and Li, W.J. (2022). A Review on Rail Defect Detection Systems Based on Wireless Sensors. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22176409"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"360","article-title":"Application of the hybrid laser ultrasonic method in rail inspection","volume":"56","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Szugs, T., Kr\u00fcger, A., Jansen, G., Beltman, B., Gao, S., M\u00fchmel, H., and Ahlbrink, R. (2016, January 13\u201317). Combination of ultrasonic and eddy current testing with imaging for characterization of rolling contact fatigue. Proceedings of the 19th World Conference on Non-Destructive Testing (WCNDT 2016), Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Gao, S., Szugs, T., and Ahlbrink, R. (2018, January 11\u20135). Use of combined railway inspection data sources for characterization of rolling contact fatigue. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Non-Destructive Testing (ECNDT), Gothenburg, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Heckel, T., Thomas, H.-M., Kreutzbruck, M., and R\u00fche, S. (2009, January 10\u201312). High speed non-destructive rail testing with advanced ultrasound and eddy-current testing techniques. Proceedings of the National Seminar & Exhibition on Non-Destructive Evaluation, Tiruchirappalli, India."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"(2023, January 08). OKOSCAN 73HS High-Speed Rail Testing System. Available online: https:\/\/www.okondt.com\/products\/ut\/flaw-detectors\/okoscan-73hs."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4627\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:32:11Z","timestamp":1760124731000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4627"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,10]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s23104627"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23104627","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,10]]}}}