{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T23:59:32Z","timestamp":1780444772145,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]],"date-time":"2023-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although extensive literature exists on forward and backward walking, a comprehensive assessment of gait parameters on a wide and homogenous population is missing. Thus, the purpose of this study is to analyse the differences between the two gait typologies on a relatively large sample. Twenty-four healthy young adults participated in this study. By means of a marker-based optoelectronic system and force platforms, differences between forward and backward walking were outlined in terms of kinematics and kinetics. Statistically, significant differences were observed in most of the spatial\u2013temporal parameters, evidencing some adaptation mechanisms in backward walking. Differently from the ankle joint, the hip and knee range of motion was significantly reduced when switching from forward to backward walking. In terms of kinetics, hip and ankle moment patterns for forward and backward walking were approximately mirrored images of each other. Moreover, joint powers appeared drastically reduced during reversed gait. Specifically, valuable differences in terms of produced and absorbed joint powers between forward and backward walking were pointed out. The outcomes of this study could represent a useful reference data for future investigation evaluating the efficacy of backward walking as a rehabilitation tool for pathological subjects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23104671","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,12]],"date-time":"2023-05-12T01:30:29Z","timestamp":1683855029000},"page":"4671","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Forward and Backward Walking: Multifactorial Characterization of Gait Parameters"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4297-2433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Donno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2033-0619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cecilia","family":"Monoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Computer System, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 12616 Tallinn, Estonia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0948-6089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlo Albino","family":"Frigo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2772-4837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuela","family":"Galli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDonald, K.A., Cusumano, J.P., Hieronymi, A., and Rubenson, J. (2022). Humans Trade off Whole-Body Energy Cost to Avoid Overburdening Muscles While Walking. Proc. R. Soc. B, 289.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2022.1189"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capodaglio, P., Gobbi, M., Donno, L., Fumagalli, A., Buratto, C., Galli, M., and Cimolin, V. (2021). Effect of Obesity on Knee and Ankle Biomechanics during Walking. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217114"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3362","DOI":"10.3390\/s140203362","article-title":"Gait Analysis Methods: An Overview of Wearable and Non-Wearable Systems, Highlighting Clinical Applications","volume":"14","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ridao-Fern\u00e1ndez, C., Pinero-Pinto, E., and Chamorro-Moriana, G. (2019). Observational Gait Assessment Scales in Patients with Walking Disorders: Systematic Review. BioMed Res. Int., 2019.","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2085039"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2016.06.017","article-title":"Reliability and Validity of Edinburgh Visual Gait Score as an Evaluation Tool for Children with Cerebral Palsy","volume":"49","author":"Abousamra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2004.tb00436.x","article-title":"Gross Motor Function Classification System: Impact and Utility","volume":"46","author":"Morris","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1986.tb05480.x","article-title":"Performance-Oriented Assessment of Mobility Problems in Elderly Patients","volume":"34","author":"Tinetti","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1002\/pri.1605","article-title":"Development and Reliability of the Functional Evaluation Scale for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Gait Domain: A Pilot Study: The Functional Evaluation Scale for DMD","volume":"20","author":"Hukuda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiother. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.10473","article-title":"The Unified Parkinson\u2019s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS): Status and Recommendations","volume":"18","author":"Goetz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2003.09.005","article-title":"Clinical Gait and Balance Scale (GABS): Validation and Utilization","volume":"217","author":"Thomas","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donno, L., Sansone, V., Galluzzo, A., and Frigo, C.A. (2022). Walking in the Absence of Anterior Cruciate Ligament: The Role of the Quadriceps and Hamstrings. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12178667"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shafie, A.A., and Khan, R. (2016). Gait analysis: Systems, technologies, and importance. J. Mech. Med. Biol., 16.","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219519416300039"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milane, T., Hansen, C., Chardon, M., Bianchini, E., and Vuillerme, N. (2023). Comparing Backward Walking Performance in Parkinson\u2019s Disease with and without Freezing of Gait\u2014A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20020953"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2018.03.004","article-title":"Association of Regular Walking and Body Mass Index on Metabolic Syndrome among an Elderly Korean Population","volume":"106","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-7435(01)80008-6","article-title":"Walking and Resting Blood Pressure in Adults: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"33","author":"Kelley","year":"2001","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1159\/000223730","article-title":"Exercise and Mental Health: Many Reasons to Move","volume":"59","author":"Deslandes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2010.09.003","article-title":"The Restorative Benefits of Walking in Urban and Rural Settings in Adults with Good and Poor Mental Health","volume":"17","author":"Roe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2013.02.014","article-title":"Kinematic and Kinetic Analysis during Forward and Backward Walking","volume":"38","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, M., Pang, J., Lu, J., Kang, M., Chen, B., Jones, R.K., Zhan, H., and Liu, A. (2022). The Immediate Effect of Backward Walking on External Knee Adduction Moment in Healthy Individuals. J. Healthc. Eng., 2022.","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4232990"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.01.002","article-title":"Effectiveness of Backward Walking Training on Balance Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"68","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walsh, G.S., and Taylor, Z. (2019). Complexity, Symmetry and Variability of Forward and Backward Walking at Different Speeds and Transfer Effects on Forward Walking: Implications for Neural Control. J. Biomech., 97.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2019.109377"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2018.05.007","article-title":"Effectiveness of Backward Walking Training on Spatial\u2013temporal Gait Characteristics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"60","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/09593985.2022.2085638","article-title":"The 3-Meter Backward Walk Test (3MBWT): Reliability and Validity in Individuals with Subacute and Chronic Stroke","volume":"5","author":"DeMark","year":"2022","journal-title":"Physiother. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.1989.10735483","article-title":"Backward Walking: A Simple Reversal of Forward Walking?","volume":"21","author":"Winter","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(98)00007-1","article-title":"Does a Single Control Mechanism Exist for Both Forward and Backward Walking?","volume":"7","author":"Flynn","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1111\/jir.12873","article-title":"Comparison of Forward and Backward Gait in Males with and without Intellectual Disabilities","volume":"65","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intellect. Disabil. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-9457(91)90046-Z","article-title":"A Gait Analysis Data Collection and Reduction Technique","volume":"10","author":"Davis","year":"1991","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/0268-0033(95)00068-2","article-title":"Relationship between Vertical Ground Reaction Force and Speed during Walking, Slow Jogging, and Running","volume":"11","author":"Keller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4671\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:33:08Z","timestamp":1760124788000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4671"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s23104671"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23104671","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]]}}}