{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T20:45:09Z","timestamp":1792183509419,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]],"date-time":"2023-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for Fundamental Research Grant Scheme","award":["FRGS\/1\/2020\/STG06\/USM\/02\/4"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRGS\/1\/2020\/STG06\/USM\/02\/4"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) have recently established themselves as an extremely interesting area of research thanks to the mysterious qualities of the ocean. The UWSN consists of sensor nodes and vehicles working to collect data and complete tasks. The battery capacity of sensor nodes is quite limited, which means that the UWSN network needs to be as efficient as it can possibly be. It is difficult to connect with or update a communication that is taking place underwater due to the high latency in propagation, the dynamic nature of the network, and the likelihood of introducing errors. This makes it difficult to communicate with or update a communication. Cluster-based underwater wireless sensor networks (CB-UWSNs) are proposed in this article. These networks would be deployed via Superframe and Telnet applications. In addition, routing protocols, such as Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV), Fisheye State Routing (FSR), Location-Aided Routing 1 (LAR1), Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR), and Source Tree Adaptive Routing\u2014Least Overhead Routing Approach (STAR-LORA), were evaluated based on the criteria of their energy consumption in a range of various modes of operation with QualNet Simulator using Telnet and Superframe applications. STAR-LORA surpasses the AODV, LAR1, OLSR, and FSR routing protocols in the evaluation report\u2019s simulations, with a Receive Energy of 0.1 mWh in a Telnet deployment and 0.021 mWh in a Superframe deployment. The Telnet and Superframe deployments consume 0.05 mWh transmit power, but the Superframe deployment only needs 0.009 mWh. As a result, the simulation results show that the STAR-LORA routing protocol outperforms the alternatives.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23104844","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,18]],"date-time":"2023-05-18T07:35:50Z","timestamp":1684395350000},"page":"4844","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks Performance Comparison Utilizing Telnet and Superframe"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Kaveripakam","family":"Sathish","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4630-4072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ravikumar","family":"CV","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3549-6443","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohd Nadhir","family":"Ab Wahab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rajesh","family":"Anbazhagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SASTRA University, Thanjavur 613401, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5798-398X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Pau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3305-6196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Firdaus","family":"Akbar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Eng. Campus, Nibong Tebal 14300, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"7143707","article-title":"Performance Analysis of Underwater Wireless Sensor Network by Deploying FTP, CBR, and VBR as Applications","volume":"2022","author":"Srinivasulu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Comput. Netw. Commun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, J., Fan, L., Wu, S., and Yan, X. (2018). Research on localization algorithms based on acoustic communication for underwater sensor networks. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010067"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heidemann, J., Ye, W., Wills, J., Syed, A., and Li, Y. (2006, January 3\u20136). Research challenges and applications for underwater sensor networking. Proceedings of the Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC 2006), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2006.1683469"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2015.01.001","article-title":"Hole detection and shape-free representation and double landmarks based geographic routing in wireless sensor networks","volume":"1","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Digit. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"9418392","article-title":"Performance and Improvement Analysis of the Underwater WSN Using a Diverse Routing Protocol Approach","volume":"2022","author":"Sathish","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Comput. Netw. Commun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anbazhagan, R., Venkata, R.C., Arena, F., and Pau, G. (2022). Investigation and Numerical Simulation of the Acoustic Target Strength of the Underwater Submarine Vehicle. Inventions, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/inventions7040111"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.3390\/telecom4010004","article-title":"Review of Localization and Clustering in USV and AUV for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"4","author":"Venkata","year":"2023","journal-title":"Telecom"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2016.10.008","article-title":"Performance analysis of an improved dynamic power management model in wireless sensor node","volume":"3","author":"Pughat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Digit. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.5121\/ijwmn.2018.10102","article-title":"Performance evolution of grid based routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks under different mobile models","volume":"10","author":"Alkindi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Wirel. Mob. Netw."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2018.2841830","article-title":"Packet size optimization for lifetime maximization in underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"15","author":"Yildiz","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-019-04583-0","article-title":"CUWSN: Energy efficient routing protocol selection for cluster-based underwater wireless sensor network","volume":"28","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4051","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2428712","article-title":"An energy-efficient reliable data transmission scheme for complex environmental monitoring in underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohan, P., Subramani, N., Alotaibi, Y., Alghamdi, S., Khalaf, O.I., and Ulaganathan, S. (2022). Improved Metaheuristics-Based Clustering with Multihop Routing Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041618"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zandi, R., Kamarei, M., and Amiri, H. (2013, January 14\u201316). Underwater acoustic sensor network localization using four directional beams. Proceedings of the 2013 21st Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE), Mashhad, Iran.","DOI":"10.1109\/IranianCEE.2013.6599752"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2006.1637927","article-title":"The challenges of building mobile underwater wireless networks for aquatic applications","volume":"20","author":"Cui","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sathish, K., Hamdi, M., Chinthaginjala, R., Pau, G., Ksibi, A., Anbazhagan, R., Abbas, M., and Usman, M. (2023). Reliable Data Transmission in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks Using a Cluster-Based Routing Protocol Endorsed by Member Nodes. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12061287"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2015.11.018","article-title":"Self-localization of autonomous underwater vehicles with accurate sound travel time solution","volume":"50","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"66","article-title":"Receiver design using artificial neural network for signal detection in MC-CDMA system","volume":"10","author":"Kalapraveen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Eng. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3445","DOI":"10.1002\/dac.3445","article-title":"Localization under anchor node uncertainty for underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"31","author":"Mridula","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.3390\/s120202026","article-title":"Localization algorithms of underwater wireless sensor networks: A survey","volume":"12","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1963.1138043","article-title":"Effects of a Surrounding Conducting Medium on Antenna Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Moore","year":"1963","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Wait, J.R., Collin, R.E., and Zucker, F.J. (1969). Antenna Theory, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105674","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3211392","article-title":"Detection of Signals in MC\u2013CDMA Using a Novel Iterative Block Decision Feedback Equalizer","volume":"10","author":"Bagadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2369474","article-title":"Algorithms for crowd surveillance using passive acoustic sensors over a multimodal sensor network","volume":"15","author":"Agarwal","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sathish, K. (2022). Underwater Wireless Sensor Network Performance Analysis Using Diverse Routing Protocols. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan11040064"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsulami, M., Elfouly, R., and Ammar, R. (2021, January 10\u201312). A reliable underwater computing system. Proceedings of the 2021 4th IEEE International Conference on Industrial Cyber-Physical Systems (ICPS), Victoria, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPS49255.2021.9468139"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erol, M., Vieira, L.F., Caruso, A., Paparella, F., Gerla, M., and Oktug, S. (2008, January 25\u201331). Multi stage underwater sensor localization using mobile beacons. Proceedings of the 2008 Second International Conference on Sensor Technologies and Applications (sensorcomm 2008), Cap Esterel, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/SENSORCOMM.2008.32"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Teja, G.S., and Samundiswary, P. (2014, January 3\u20135). Performance analysis of DYMO protocol for IEEE 802.15. 4 based WSNs with mobile nodes. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Computer Communication and Informatics, Coimbatore, India."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"197","article-title":"Improved mobicast routing protocol to minimize energy consumption for underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"3","author":"Patil","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1212","article-title":"Performance of AODV routing protocol using group and entity mobility models in wireless sensor networks","volume":"2","author":"Manjula","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Multi Conf. Eng. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Han, L., Li, Z., Liu, W., Qu, W., Nie, L., Zheng, L., and Liu, M. (2016, January 14\u201317). Sensor localization in underwater sensor networks using distance transform based skeleton extraction. Proceedings of the 2016 2nd IEEE International Conference on Computer and Communications (ICCC), Chengdu, China."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramani, N., Mohan, P., Alotaibi, Y., Alghamdi, S., and Khalaf, O.I. (2022). An Efficient Metaheuristic-Based Clustering with Routing Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22020415"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25027","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3195223","article-title":"An Unequal Clustering Method Based on Particle Swarm Optimization in Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks","volume":"9","author":"Hou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9005","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3055857","article-title":"Game-Theory-Based Clustering Scheme for Energy Balancing in Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks","volume":"8","author":"Xing","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, W., Zhao, Y., Hou, R., Dong, M., Ota, K., Zeng, D., and Zhang, J. (2023). A Centralized Control-Based Clustering Scheme for Energy Efficiency in Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks. IEEE Trans. Green Commun. Netw.","DOI":"10.1109\/TGCN.2023.3249208"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4844\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:37:14Z","timestamp":1760125034000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4844"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s23104844"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23104844","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]}}}