{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T18:38:02Z","timestamp":1777919882191,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]],"date-time":"2023-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684454400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006751","name":"US Department of Defense (Army)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["W81XWH-16-2-0062"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH-16-2-0062"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006751","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper will introduce a simple locating system to track a stent when it is deployed into a human artery. The stent is proposed to achieve hemostasis for bleeding soldiers on the battlefield, where common surgical imaging equipment such as fluoroscopy systems are not available. In the application of interest, the stent must be guided to the right location to avoid serious complications. The most important features are its relative accuracy and the ease by which it may be quickly set up and used in a trauma situation. The locating approach in this paper utilizes a magnet outside the human body as the reference and a magnetometer that will be deployed inside the artery with the stent. The sensor can detect its location in a coordinate system centered with the reference magnet. In practice, the main challenge is that the locating accuracy will be deteriorated by external magnetic interference, rotation of the sensor, and random noise. These causes of error are addressed in the paper to improve the locating accuracy and repeatability under various conditions. Finally, the system\u2019s locating performance will be validated in benchtop experiments, where the effects of the disturbance-eliminating procedures will be addressed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23104887","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]],"date-time":"2023-05-19T10:08:55Z","timestamp":1684490935000},"page":"4887","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A System to Track Stent Location in the Human Body by Fusing Magnetometer and Accelerometer Measurements"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4138-746X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yifan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2165-8448","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William W.","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bryan","family":"Tillman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vascular Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4522-7116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Young Jae","family":"Chun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Industrial Engineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6701-7219","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanie","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sung Kwon","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED.170.1.63","article-title":"Hemorrhage control in the battlefield: Role of new hemostatic agent","volume":"170","author":"Wortham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Kragh, J.F., Murphy, C., Dubick, M.A., Baer, D.G., Johnson, J., and Blackbourne, L.H. (2011). New tourniquet device concepts for battlefield hemorrhage control. US Army Med. Dep. J., 38\u201348."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000001534","article-title":"A retrievable rescue stent graft and radiofrequency positioning for rapid control of noncompressible hemorrhage","volume":"83","author":"Chun","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Trauma Acute Care Surg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvs.2022.03.747","article-title":"A Magnetic Sensor-equipped Retrievable Aortic Rescue Stent Graft for Noncompressible Torso Hemorrhage","volume":"75","author":"Kenawy","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1007\/s00270-011-0307-7","article-title":"A fatal complication caused by occult pheochromocytoma after splenic artery embolization for malignant hypersplenism","volume":"35","author":"Dinkelaar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Interv. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2023, March 27). File: Circulatory System No tags.svg\u2014Wikimedia Commons, the Free Media Repository. Available online: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=File:Circulatory_System_no_tags.svg&oldid=647795512."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.4329\/wjr.v12.i10.213","article-title":"Fluoroscopy: An essential diagnostic modality in the age of high-resolution cross-sectional imaging","volume":"12","author":"Shalom","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035006","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0079779","article-title":"An innovative eye-tracker: Main features and demonstrative tests","volume":"93","author":"Bellizzi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.27934","article-title":"Retrospective correction of head motion using measurements from an electromagnetic tracker","volume":"83","author":"Afacan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radonc.2008.08.018","article-title":"High precision transponder localization using a novel electromagnetic positioning system in patients with localized prostate cancer","volume":"90","author":"Kindblom","year":"2009","journal-title":"Radiother. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2007.911003","article-title":"Intraoperative magnetic tracker calibration using a magneto-optic hybrid tracker for 3-D ultrasound-based navigation in laparoscopic surgery","volume":"27","author":"Nakamoto","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2004.08.014","article-title":"Rapporteur report: Cellular, animal and epidemiological studies of the effects of static magnetic fields relevant to human health","volume":"87","author":"Leszczynski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1080\/24699322.2018.1529199","article-title":"A novel electromagnetic tracking system for surgery navigation","volume":"23","author":"Attivissimo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Assist. Surg."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2022, January 22). Aurora\u2014NDI. Available online: https:\/\/www.ndigital.com\/products\/aurora\/."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Polhemus (2022, January 22). Polhemus Liberty. Available online: http:\/\/polhemus.com\/motion-tracking\/all-trackers\/liberty."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0893-1321(2006)19:2(87)","article-title":"Calibration of strapdown magnetometers in magnetic field domain","volume":"19","author":"Elkaim","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Aerosp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2015.06.016","article-title":"Magnetic tracer-particle tracking in a fluid dynamically down-scaled bubbling fluidized bed","volume":"138","author":"Sette","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3524","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2013.2240899","article-title":"Real-time pose detection for magnetic medical devices","volume":"49","author":"Beccani","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3462","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2894386","article-title":"A Novel Passive Magnetic Localization Wearable System for Wireless Capsule Endoscopy","volume":"19","author":"Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4928","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2713886","article-title":"Investigation of the Relationship between Tracking Accuracy and Tracking Distance of a Novel Magnetic Tracking System","volume":"17","author":"Su","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Matthey, J. (2022, February 12). Nitinol Technical Properties | Johnson Matthey. Available online: https:\/\/matthey.com\/en\/products-and-services\/medical-components\/resource-library\/nitinol-technical-properties."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Blinder, S.M. (2011). Magnetic Field of a Cylindrical Bar Magnet, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Available online: http:\/\/demonstrations.wolfram.com\/MagneticFieldOfACylindricalBarMagnet\/."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.2528\/PIERB15100606","article-title":"Definition for polarization P and magnetization M fully consistent with Maxwell\u2019s equations","volume":"64","author":"Gonano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res. B"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"2825","article-title":"Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python","volume":"127","author":"Pedregosa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Junji, G., Xingle, Z., and Wubing, Z. (December, January 30). Accurate calculating method of marine three-component geomagnetic field in shipboard measurement. Proceedings of the 2015 Chinese Automation Congress (CAC), Xi\u2019an, China."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Ozyagcilar, T. (2012). Calibrating an Ecompass in the Presence of Hard and Soft-Iron Interference, Freescale Semiconductor Ltd."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ge, Z., Liu, S., Li, G., Huang, Y., and Wang, Y. (2017). Error model of geomagnetic-field measurement and extended Kalman-filter based compensation method. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173962"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2021, February 17). BUNTINGmagnets. Available online: https:\/\/buymagnets.com\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2022, May 01). Wikimedia Commons Contributors. \u2019File:Taitbrianzyx.svg\u2019, Wikimedia Commons, 20 September 2020, 15:37 UTC. Available online: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=File:Taitbrianzyx.svg&oldid=466041069."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"15","article-title":"Quaternions and rotations","volume":"477","author":"Jia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Com S"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Ozyagcilar, T. (2012). Implementing a Tilt-Compensated eCompass Using Accelerometer and Magnetometer Sensors, Freescale Semiconductor."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2017160060","article-title":"Radiologic Assessment of Native Renal Vasculature: A Multimodality Review","volume":"37","author":"Shetty","year":"2017","journal-title":"RadioGraphics"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4887\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:38:20Z","timestamp":1760125100000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/10\/4887"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s23104887"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23104887","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]]}}}