{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T23:16:57Z","timestamp":1780442217573,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685145600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["2020.08326.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.08326.BD"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["UIDB04045\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB04045\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present study aimed to analyze swimmers\u2019 in-water kinetic and kinematic behaviors according to different swimming performance tiers within the same age group. An amount of 53 highly trained swimmers (girls and boys: 12.40 \u00b1 0.74 years) were split up into 3 tiers based on their personal best performance (i.e., speed) in the 50 m freestyle event (short-course): lower-tier (1.25 \u00b1 0.08 m\u00b7s\u22121); mid-tier (1.45 \u00b1 0.04 m\u00b7s\u22121); and top-tier (1.60 \u00b1 0.04 m\u00b7s\u22121). The in-water mean peak force was measured during a maximum bout of 25 m front crawl using a differential pressure sensors system (Aquanex system, Swimming Technology Research, Richmond, VA, USA) and defined as a kinetic variable, while speed, stroke rate, stroke length, and stroke index were retrieved and considered as kinematic measures. The top-tier swimmers were taller with a longer arm span and hand surface areas than the low-tier, but similar to the mid-tier. While the mean peak force, speed and efficiency differed among tiers, the stroke rate and stroke length showed mixed findings. Coaches should be aware that young swimmers belonging to the same age group may deliver different performance outcomes due to different kinetic and kinematic behaviors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23115113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T16:18:43Z","timestamp":1685204323000},"page":"5113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Performance Tiers within a Competitive Age Group of Young Swimmers Are Characterized by Different Kinetic and Kinematic Behaviors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4592-8091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catarina C.","family":"Santos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8105-7580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno D.","family":"Garrido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Sport Sciences, Exercise and Health, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2942-4862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Cuenca-Fern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sports and Computer Science, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Seville, Spain"},{"name":"Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2351-3047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel A.","family":"Marinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5502-1202","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M\u00e1rio J.","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2011.587196","article-title":"Stability of elite freestyle performance from childhood to adulthood","volume":"29","author":"Costa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Proposal of a deterministic model to explain swimming performance","volume":"2","author":"Barbosa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Swim. Kinet."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, C.C., Marinho, D.A., Neiva, H.P., and Costa, M.J. (Sports Biomech., 2021). Propulsive forces in human competitive swimming: A systematic review on direct assessment methods, Sports Biomech., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2021.1953574"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s12283-017-0246-x","article-title":"Forces during front crawl swimming at different stroke rates","volume":"21","author":"Cohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sports Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strza\u0142a, M., Stanula, A., Kr\u0119\u017ca\u0142ek, P., Soko\u0142owski, K., W\u0105drzyk, \u0141., Maciejczyk, M., Karpi\u0144ski, J., Rejdych, W., Wilk, R., and Sadowski, W. (2022). Correlations between Crawl Kinematics and Speed with Morphologic, Functional, and Anaerobic Parameters in Competitive Swimmers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19084595"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takagi, H., Nakashima, M., Sengoku, Y., Tsunokawa, T., Koga, D., Narita, K., Kudo, S., Sanders, R., and Gonjo, T. (Sports Biomech., 2021). How do swimmers control their front crawl swimming velocity? Current knowledge and gaps from hydrodynamic perspectives, Sports Biomech., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2021.1959946"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.12.003","article-title":"Analysis of a \u2019swimmer\u2019s hand and forearm in impulsive start from rest using computational fluid dynamics in unsteady flow conditions","volume":"67","author":"Samson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786459","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2022.786459","article-title":"Relationship Between Hand Kinematics, Hand Hydrodynamic Pressure Distribution and Hand Propulsive Force in Sprint Front Crawl Swimming","volume":"4","author":"Koga","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Sports Act. Living"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2019.03.007","article-title":"The effect of using paddles on hand propulsive forces and Froude efficiency in arm-stroke-only front-crawl swimming at various velocities","volume":"64","author":"Tsunokawa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903753","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.903753","article-title":"Reliability of using a pressure sensor system to measure in-water force in young competitive swimmers","volume":"10","author":"Santos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.2478\/hukin-2022-0090","article-title":"The mechanical and efficiency constraints when swimming front crawl with the Aquanex System","volume":"84","author":"Santos","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hum. Kinet."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartolomeu, R.F., Rodrigues, P., Santos, C.C., Costa, M.J., and Barbosa, T.M. (2022). Is There Any Effect of Symmetry on Velocity of the Four Swimming Strokes?. Symmetry, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym14010012"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000000391","article-title":"Chronological age vs. biological maturation: Implications for exercise programming in youth","volume":"28","author":"Lloyd","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, M., Carvalho, D.D., Fernandes, R.J., and Vilas-Boas, J.P. (2022). How Anthropometrics of Young and Adolescent Swimmers Influence Stroking Parameters and Performance? A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19052543"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.24.4.649","article-title":"Linking selected kinematic, anthropometric and hydrodynamic variables to young swimmer performance","volume":"24","author":"Morais","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1123\/mc.2014-0050","article-title":"Front Crawl Sprint Performance: A Cluster Analysis of Biomechanics, Energetics, Coordinative, and Anthropometric Determinants in Young Swimmers","volume":"20","author":"Figueiredo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Motor. Control"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.00073","article-title":"Skillful Swimming in Age-Groups Is Determined by Anthropometrics, Biomechanics and Energetics","volume":"10","author":"Barbosa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2013-0533","article-title":"Cluster stability as a new method to assess changes in performance and its determinant factors over a season in young swimmers","volume":"10","author":"Morais","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1123\/mc.2021-0126","article-title":"Young \u2019Swimmers\u2019 Classification Based on Performance and Biomechanical Determinants: Determining Similarities Through Cluster Analysis","volume":"26","author":"Morais","year":"2022","journal-title":"Motor. Control"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2021-0451","article-title":"Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework","volume":"17","author":"McKay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Lohman, T.G., Roche, A.F., and Martorell, R. (1988). Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual, Human Kinetics."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2013.865139","article-title":"Growth influences biomechanical profile of talented swimmers during the summer break","volume":"13","author":"Moreira","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sports Biomech."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1037\/a0015808","article-title":"An Effect Size Primer: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers","volume":"40","author":"Ferguson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prof. Psychol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Routledge Academic."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/sports3010001","article-title":"The Association between Anthropometric Variables, Functional Movement Screen Scores and 100 m Freestyle Swimming Performance in Youth Swimmers","volume":"3","author":"Bond","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sports"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.22.1.135","article-title":"A multivariate analysis of performance in young swimmers","volume":"22","author":"Saavedra","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C., and Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity, Human Kinetics.","DOI":"10.5040\/9781492596837"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, C.C., Costa, M.J., and Marinho, D.A. (Int. J. Sports Physiol., 2023). The Effects of 6-Week Training Cessation on Anthropometrics, in-Water Force, Performance, and Kinematics of Young Competitive Swimmers: A Maturity Development, Int. J. Sports Physiol., ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2023-0003"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.2019.1708235","article-title":"Data Modeling for Inter- and Intra-Individual Stability of Young \u2019Swimmers\u2019 Performance: A Longitudinal Cluster Analysis","volume":"92","author":"Morais","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res. Q. Exerc. Sport"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"177","article-title":"The anatomical and physiological characteristics of pre-adolescent males and females","volume":"22","author":"Blanksby","year":"1986","journal-title":"Aust. Paediatr. J."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"707","article-title":"Differences in stroke technique to exert hand propulsion between advanced and intermediate swimmers","volume":"34","author":"Kudo","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISBS Proc. Arch."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2011.07.011","article-title":"Effect of increasing energy cost on arm coordination in elite sprint swimmers","volume":"31","author":"Komar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-008-0676-z","article-title":"The influence of stroke mechanics into energy cost of elite swimmers","volume":"103","author":"Barbosa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2006.09.003","article-title":"Swimming constraints and arm coordination","volume":"26","author":"Seifert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/11\/5113\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:43:16Z","timestamp":1760125396000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/11\/5113"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s23115113"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23115113","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]]}}}