{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T22:47:19Z","timestamp":1772837239297,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685145600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"atural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada\u2019s CREATE-MSS Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10017043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10017043"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"atural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada\u2019s CREATE-MSS Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10012432"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10012432"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001804","name":"Canada Research Chairs program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10017043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10017043"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001804","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001804","name":"Canada Research Chairs program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10012432"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10012432"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001804","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autonomous navigation requires multi-sensor fusion to achieve a high level of accuracy in different environments. Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers are the main components in most navigation systems. However, GNSS signals are subject to blockage and multipath effects in challenging areas, e.g., tunnels, underground parking, and downtown or urban areas. Therefore, different sensors, such as inertial navigation systems (INSs) and radar, can be used to compensate for GNSS signal deterioration and to meet continuity requirements. In this paper, a novel algorithm was applied to improve land vehicle navigation in GNSS-challenging environments through radar\/INS integration and map matching. Four radar units were utilized in this work. Two units were used to estimate the vehicle\u2019s forward velocity, and the four units were used together to estimate the vehicle\u2019s position. The integrated solution was estimated in two steps. First, the radar solution was fused with an INS through an extended Kalman filter (EKF). Second, map matching was used to correct the radar\/INS integrated position using OpenStreetMap (OSM). The developed algorithm was evaluated using real data collected in Calgary\u2019s urban area and downtown Toronto. The results show the efficiency of the proposed method, which had a horizontal position RMS error percentage of less than 1% of the distance traveled for three minutes of a simulated GNSS outage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23115119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T16:18:43Z","timestamp":1685204323000},"page":"5119","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Radar\/INS Integration and Map Matching for Land Vehicle Navigation in Urban Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Elkholy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Transportation Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21544, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0108-8203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Elsheikh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"},{"name":"Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering Department, Tanta University, Tanta 31512, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Naser","family":"El-Sheimy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7228","DOI":"10.3390\/s150407228","article-title":"Integration of GPS Precise Point Positioning and MEMS-Based INS Using Unscented Particle Filter","volume":"15","author":"Rabbou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10599","DOI":"10.3390\/s130810599","article-title":"The Performance Analysis of a Real-Time Integrated INS\/GPS Vehicle Navigation System with Abnormal GPS Measurement Elimination","volume":"13","author":"Chiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iqbal, U., Georgy, J., Korenberg, M.J., and Noureldin, A. 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