{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T21:23:24Z","timestamp":1781904204699,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,28]],"date-time":"2023-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685232000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000192","name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR0210305"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR0210305"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000192","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000192","name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["95525"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["95525"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000192","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006041","name":"Innovate UK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR0210305"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR0210305"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006041","name":"Innovate UK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["95525"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["95525"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study is directed towards developing a fast, non-destructive, and easy-to-use handheld multimode spectroscopic system for fish quality assessment. We apply data fusion of visible near infra-red (VIS-NIR) and short wave infra-red (SWIR) reflectance and fluorescence (FL) spectroscopy data features to classify fish from fresh to spoiled condition. Farmed Atlantic and wild coho and chinook salmon and sablefish fillets were measured. Three hundred measurement points on each of four fillets were taken every two days over 14 days for a total of 8400 measurements for each spectral mode. Multiple machine learning techniques including principal component analysis, self-organized maps, linear and quadratic discriminant analyses, k-nearest neighbors, random forest, support vector machine, and linear regression, as well as ensemble and majority voting methods, were used to explore spectroscopy data measured on fillets and to train classification models to predict freshness. Our results show that multi-mode spectroscopy achieves 95% accuracy, improving the accuracies of the FL, VIS-NIR and SWIR single-mode spectroscopies by 26, 10 and 9%, respectively. We conclude that multi-mode spectroscopy and data fusion analysis has the potential to accurately assess freshness and predict shelf life for fish fillets and recommend this study be expanded to a larger number of species in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23115149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,28]],"date-time":"2023-05-28T15:29:52Z","timestamp":1685287792000},"page":"5149","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Rapid Assessment of Fish Freshness for Multiple Supply-Chain Nodes Using Multi-Mode Spectroscopy and Fusion-Based Artificial Intelligence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7907-638X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hossein","family":"Kashani Zadeh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SafetySpect Inc., Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0242-8727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mike","family":"Hardy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mitchell","family":"Sueker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Program, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yicong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelis","family":"Tzouchas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SafetySpect Inc., Grand Forks, ND 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Beltsville, MD 20705, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amanda M.","family":"Tabb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Science Program, Schmid College of Science and Technology, Chapman University, Orange, CA 92866, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3953-2007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosalee S.","family":"Hellberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Science Program, Schmid College of Science and Technology, Chapman University, Orange, CA 92866, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shereen","family":"Ismail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hassan","family":"Reza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fartash","family":"Vasefi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SafetySpect Inc., Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moon","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA-ARS Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5785-358X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kouhyar","family":"Tavakolian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Program, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, 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