{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T18:36:35Z","timestamp":1780511795192,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":145,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]],"date-time":"2023-05-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685491200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science and Technology Research and Development Program of China State Railway Group Co., Ltd.","award":["K2022T002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2022T002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wheel burn can affect the wheel\u2013rail contact state and ride quality. With long-term operation, it can cause rail head spalling or transverse cracking, which will lead to rail breakage. By analyzing the relevant literature on wheel burn, this paper reviews the characteristics, mechanism of formation, crack extension, and NDT methods of wheel burn. The results are as follows: Thermal-induced, plastic-deformation-induced, and thermomechanical-induced mechanisms have been proposed by researchers; among them, the thermomechanical-induced wheel burn mechanism is more probable and convincing. Initially, the wheel burns appear as an elliptical or strip-shaped white etching layer with or without deformation on the running surface of the rails. In the latter stages of development, this may cause cracks, spalling, etc. Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing, Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Testing, Eddy Current Testing, Acoustic Emission Testing, and Infrared Thermography Testing can identify the white etching layer, and surface and near-surface cracks. Automatic Visual Testing can detect the white etching layer, surface cracks, spalling, and indentation, but cannot detect the depth of rail defects. Axle Box Acceleration Measurement can be used to detect severe wheel burn with deformation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23115240","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,1]],"date-time":"2023-06-01T02:39:47Z","timestamp":1685587187000},"page":"5240","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A Review of NDT Methods for Wheel Burn Detection on Rails"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1843-8886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanbo","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Department, China Academy of Railway Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiubo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Corporation Limited, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Longhui","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Corporation Limited, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuo","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Corporation Limited, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianmei","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Department, China Academy of Railway Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-2695.2003.00693.x","article-title":"Rail Defects: An Overview","volume":"26","author":"Cannon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1243\/09544097JRRT209","article-title":"A Review on Non-Destructive Evaluation of Rails: State-of-the-Art and Future Development","volume":"222","author":"Papaelias","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"766","article-title":"Analysis of damage causes of high-speed railway rails","volume":"49","author":"Deng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Test. Chem. Anal. (Part A Phys. Test.)"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"37","article-title":"Analysis of rail damage in the early operation period of high-speed railway ballastless track and countermeasures","volume":"147","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Shanghai Railw. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"46","article-title":"Analysis of the causes of wheel burn on high-speed railway rails and treatment measures","volume":"158","author":"Ning","year":"2017","journal-title":"Shanghai Railw. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"138","article-title":"Early damage research on high-speed railway rails in China","volume":"58","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Railw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"83","article-title":"Analysis of common surface damage on high-speed railway rails and countermeasures","volume":"77","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"China High-Tech Enterp."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Qi, Z., Liu, F., and Jiang, Z. (2022). Analysis of defects in construction of high-speed railway rails and suggestions for rail protection management. Railw. Eng., 62."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Li, C., Zhang, Y., Tian, C., Wang, Z., Shi, T., and Liu, F. (2020). Study on service status and disease control of high-speed railway rails. Railw. Eng., 60."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"International Union of Railways (UIC) (2002). UIC 712: Rail Defects, International Union of Railways."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kerr, M., and Wilson, A. (2012). TMC 226: Rail Defects Handbook, NSW Transport RailCorp."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"FRA (Federal Railroad Administration) (2015). Track Inspector Rail Defect Reference Manual, FRA (Federal Railroad Administration)."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Ministry of Railways of the People\u2019s Republic of China (2010). Rail Damage Classification, Ministry of Railways of the People\u2019s Republic of China."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Yang, G., Liu, F., Li, C., Tian, C., Zhou, S., and Wang, Z. (2022). Research on influencing factors of service life of high-speed railway rails in China. Adv. Mater. High Speed Railw., 1."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"489","article-title":"Analysis on the causes of wheel burn on passenger dedicated line","volume":"12","author":"Wei","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Railw. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Yang, D., Deng, Y., Dong, X., and Zhao, J. (2022). Research on rail damage and its formation mechanism in a certain railway. Iron Steel Vanadium Titan., 43."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"40","article-title":"Formation mechanism and maintenance strategy of hidden damage on high-speed railway rails in China","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2018.12.035","article-title":"The Effect of Frequency on Both the Debris and the Development of the Tribologically Transformed Structure during Fretting Wear of a High Strength Steel","volume":"426\u2013427","author":"Kirk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2019.107892","article-title":"Micro Fracture Investigations of White Etching Layers","volume":"180","author":"Saxena","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.triboint.2019.106096","article-title":"An Energetic Approach for the Prognosis of Thermally Induced White Etching Layers in Bearing Steel 100CrMn6","volume":"143","author":"Sous","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tribol. Int."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"169","article-title":"Micro-Metallography and Its Practical Application","volume":"19","author":"Stead","year":"1912","journal-title":"J. West. Scott. Iron Steel Inst."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3261495","article-title":"Mechanisms of White Layer Generation with Reference to Machining and Deformation Processes","volume":"109","author":"Griffiths","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Tribol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1648(99)00167-2","article-title":"Analytical 1D Model for Analysis of the Thermally Affected Zone Formed during Railway Wheel Skid","volume":"232","author":"Karlsson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1648(01)00748-7","article-title":"Changes in Microstructure, Texture and Residual Stresses on the Surface of a Rail Resulting from Friction and Wear","volume":"251","author":"Pyzalla","year":"2001","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-5093(00)01842-6","article-title":"Investigation of White Etching Layers on Rails by Optical Microscopy, Electron Microscopy, X-Ray and Synchrotron X-Ray Diffraction","volume":"303","author":"Rooch","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2004.05.289","article-title":"Microscopic Investigation of Surface Layers on Rails","volume":"239","author":"Svoboda","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2012.01.002","article-title":"Surface Damage on New AS60 Rail Caused by Wheel Slip","volume":"22","author":"Pal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-5093(03)00327-7","article-title":"Microstructure Features on Rolling Surfaces of Railway Rails Subjected to Heavy Loading","volume":"359","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2019.04.012","article-title":"Microstructural Evolution of White and Brown Etching Layers in Pearlitic Rail Steels","volume":"171","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"202998","article-title":"Characterization of White Etching Layers Formed on Rails Subjected to Different Traffic Conditions","volume":"436\u2013437","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.triboint.2019.105875","article-title":"Microstructural Changes on Railway Track Surfaces Caused by Electrical Leakage between Wheel and Rail","volume":"140","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Tribol. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2019.203139","article-title":"Understanding and Treatment of Squat Defects in a Railway Network","volume":"442\u2013443","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-5416(84)90180-0","article-title":"A Transmission Electron Microscopy Study of the White-Etching Layer on a Rail Head","volume":"66","author":"Newcomb","year":"1984","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1648(95)06733-7","article-title":"Formation of White-Etching Layers on Rail Treads","volume":"191","author":"Baumann","year":"1996","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/S0965-9773(97)00162-1","article-title":"Surface Modification, Corrugation and Nanostructure Formation of High Speed Railway Tracks","volume":"9","author":"Baumann","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nanostructured Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-5093(00)01947-X","article-title":"Nanostructure Formation on the Surface of Railway Tracks","volume":"303","author":"Lojkowski","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/JMNM.10.175","article-title":"Nanostructure Formation and Mechanical Alloying in the Wheel\/Rail Contact Area of High-Speed Trains in Comparison with Other Synthesis Routes","volume":"10","author":"Djahanbakhsh","year":"2001","journal-title":"JMNM"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2016.05.007","article-title":"Phase and Microstructural Evolution in White Etching Layer of a Pearlitic Steel during Rolling\u2013Skidding Friction","volume":"362\u2013363","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"203945","article-title":"An Attempt to Generate Mechanical White Etching Layer on Rail Surface on a New Rolling Contact Test Bench","volume":"482\u2013483","author":"Pierrick","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2012.04.023","article-title":"On the Mechanism of Squat Formation on Train Rails\u2014Part I: Origination","volume":"47","author":"Steenbergen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00754768","article-title":"Structure and Properties of White Layers Formed at High Velocities of Friction","volume":"14","author":"Shur","year":"1978","journal-title":"Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1648(95)06727-2","article-title":"Cause, Increase, Diagnosis, Countermeasures and Elimination of Shinkansen Spalling","volume":"191","author":"Kondo","year":"1996","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2006.01.033","article-title":"Microstructural Investigation of White Etching Layer on Pearlite Steel Rail","volume":"421","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.3846\/16484142.2012.696214","article-title":"On Wheel\u2013Rail Contact Surface Phenomena with Structural Changes and \u2018White Etching Layers\u2019 Generation","volume":"27","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transport"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"453","article-title":"Microstructure of White Etching Layer of In-Field Loaded Railway Steel","volume":"11","author":"Petrov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mach. Technol. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2017.07.005","article-title":"Squat Formation and the Occurrence of Two Distinct Classes of White Etching Layer on the Surface of Rail Steel","volume":"104","author":"Wexler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, G., Liu, M., Gui, X., Hu, J., Luan, J.H., Jiao, Z.B., Wang, X., Bai, B., and Yang, Z. (2021). A Novel Mechanism of the Formation of White and Brown Etching Layer in Bainitic Rail Steel. SSRN J.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3957207"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1179\/cmq.1982.21.1.31","article-title":"Metallurgical Aspects of Surface Damage Problems in Rails","volume":"21","author":"Clayton","year":"1982","journal-title":"Can. Metall. Q."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Kerr, M., Wilson, A., and Marich, S. (2008, January 7\u201310). The Epidemiology of Squats And Related Rail Defects. Proceedings of the CORE 2008, Rail: The Core of Integrated Transport, Conference on Railway, Engineering, Perth, Australia."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2016.03.019","article-title":"\u201cBrown Etching Layer\u201d: A Possible New Insight into the Crack Initiation of Rolling Contact Fatigue in Rail Steels?","volume":"66","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Petrov, R.H., Li, S., Li, Z., Godet, S., Malet, L., and Sietsma, J. (2016, January 19). Characterization of Structural Change in Rail Surface Using Advanced Automatic Crystallographic Orientation Microscopy. Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Railway Engineering Design and Operation, Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.2495\/CR160331"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2019.01.018","article-title":"Evolution of Rail Surface Degradation in the Tunnel: The Role of Water on Squat Growth under Service Conditions","volume":"209","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Stephen, M. (2002). The Development of Squat Defects Under High Axle Load Operations, Railway Technical Society of Australasia\/Rail Track Association of Australia."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2491","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.654-656.2491","article-title":"Microstructure Features and Contact Fatigue Crack Growth on Rail","volume":"654\u2013656","author":"Seo","year":"2010","journal-title":"MSF"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2010.08.007","article-title":"Numerical Stress Analysis and Rolling Contact Fatigue of White Etching Layer on Rail Steel","volume":"33","author":"Seo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2013.02.016","article-title":"Early Stages of Rail Squat Formation and the Role of a White Etching Layer","volume":"52","author":"Pal","year":"2013","journal-title":"International Journal of Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2019.06.067","article-title":"Crack Propagation Behavior in White Etching Layer on Rail Steel Surface","volume":"104","author":"Lian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2007.01.003","article-title":"Rolling Contact Fatigue of White Etching Layer: Part 1: Crack Morphology","volume":"262","author":"Carroll","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirpj.2018.10.001","article-title":"Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing Methods for Characterization and Detection of Machining-Induced White Layer: A Review Paper","volume":"23","author":"Brown","year":"2018","journal-title":"CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Wilsonl, A., Kerrl, M., Marich, S., and Kaewunruen, S. (2012, January 10\u201312). Wheel\/Rail Conditions and Squat Development on Moderately Curved Tracks. Proceedings of the CORE 2012: Global Perspectives, Conference on Railway Engineering, Brisbane, Australia."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"374","article-title":"Identification and Prioritization of Rail Squat Defects in the Field Using Rail Magnetisation Technology","volume":"Volume 9437","author":"Shull","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Structural Health Monitoring and Inspection of Advanced Materials, Aerospace, and Civil Infrastructure 2015"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Lin, J.M. (2006). Research on Magnetic Particle Inspection Technology and Its Development Status. Nondestruct. Test. Technol., 30."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"357","article-title":"3D Magnetic Field Sensing for Magnetic Flux Leakage Defect Characterisation","volume":"48","author":"Wilson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, W., Muhammad, F., Ghassan, N., Mohamed, F., and Mohd, N. (2022). Nondestructive Testing Technologies for Rail Inspection: A Review. Coatings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings12111790"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Xiong, L.H., Wang, P., Qi, J., Wang, H., Tian, G., and Gao, Y. (2013). Research on the Magnetization Intensity of Rails in High-speed Magnetic Particle Inspection. Nondestruct. Test., 35."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"148","article-title":"A Method to Suppress the Interference of Lifting in Magnetic Particle Inspection of Surface Defects on Rails","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Electron. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y., Lu, Y., Xiong, L., Zhang, Y., Wang, P., and Zhou, H. (2022). A Filtering Method for Suppressing the Lift-Off Interference in Magnetic Flux Leakage Detection of Rail Head Surface Defect. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12031740"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-021-00833-2","article-title":"Using a Tail Field in High-Speed Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing","volume":"41","author":"Antipov","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Cui, L. (2011). Defect Identification Technology of Magnetic Particle Inspection for High-Speed Railway. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"31","article-title":"Review of Nondestructive Testing of Magnetic Conductivity of Iron and Steel","volume":"26","author":"Xing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Coll. Phys. Exp."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2005.07.013","article-title":"Pulsed Magnetic Flux Leakage Techniques for Crack Detection and Characterisation","volume":"125","author":"Sophian","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2011.09.010","article-title":"The Inspection of Magnetic Flux Leakage from Metal Surface Cracks by Magneto-Optical Sensors","volume":"172","author":"Tehranchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2006.08.002","article-title":"Experiment and Simulation Study of 3D Magnetic Field Sensing for Magnetic Flux Leakage Defect Characterisation","volume":"40","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2003.06.002","article-title":"Rail Flaw Detection: Overview and Needs for Future Developments","volume":"37","author":"Clark","year":"2004","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Wang, P., Ding, S., Tian, G., Wang, H., and Yang, Y. (2010). Electromagnetic Testing of High-speed Railway Steel Rails. Nondestruct. Test., 32."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"53","article-title":"Analysis of Dynamic Magnetization and Speed Effect in High-speed Magnetic Particle Inspection of Rail Cracks","volume":"35","author":"Gao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nondestruct. Test."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"1","article-title":"High-speed Online Inspection Method for Rail Cracks Based on Electromagnetic Principles","volume":"34","author":"Gao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nondestruct. Test."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Xiong, L. (2014). Research on Magnetic Particle Inspection Technology for Rail Cracks. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"39","article-title":"Research on Magnetic Particle Inspection Technology for Top Surface Damage Based on Large-scale Rail Flaw Detection Vehicle","volume":"664","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"China Railw."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1134\/S1061830914080026","article-title":"Evaluation of Transverse Cracks Detection Depth in MFL Rail NDT","volume":"50","author":"Antipov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Russ. J. Nondestruct. Test."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1784\/insi.2014.56.12.657","article-title":"Review of Railway Track Applications of Barkhausen Noise and Other Magnetic Testing Methods","volume":"56","author":"Sorsa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Insight"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2016.09.015","article-title":"Monitoring of Grinding Burn via Barkhausen Noise Emission in Case-Hardened Steel in Large-Bearing Production","volume":"240","author":"Melikhova","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445301","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/47\/44\/445301","article-title":"Modification of Steel Surfaces Induced by Turning: Non-Destructive Characterization Using Barkhausen Noise and Positron Annihilation","volume":"47","author":"Melikhova","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-8853(01)00066-X","article-title":"Magnetic Barkhausen Noise and Hysteresis Loop in Commercial Carbon Steel: Influence of Applied Tensile Stress and Grain Size","volume":"231","author":"Padovese","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"84","article-title":"Nondestructive Measurement of Hardness of Ferromagnetic Materials Using Barkhausen Noise Test Research","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. North. Jiaotong Univ."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.12693\/APhysPolA.131.1099","article-title":"Analysis of Structure Transformations in Rail Surface Induced by Plastic Deformation via Barkhausen Noise Emission","volume":"131","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Pol. A"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"38","article-title":"Microstructural Transformation of a Rail Surface Induced by Severe Thermoplastic Deformation and Its Non-Destructive Monitoring via Barkhausen Noise","volume":"402\u2013403","author":"Kejzlar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.3901\/JME.2021.18.049","article-title":"Nondestructive Testing of White Layer on Rails Based on Magnetic Barkhausen Noise","volume":"57","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2013.01.007","article-title":"An Application of Back Propagation Neural Network for the Steel Stress Detection Based on Barkhausen Noise Theory","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"1763","article-title":"Review of Rail Defect Damage Inspection and Monitoring","volume":"37","author":"Tian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.commatsci.2008.01.034","article-title":"Eddy Current Detection of Changes in Stainless Steel after Cold Reduction","volume":"43","author":"Khan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Li, G., Huang, P., Chen, P., Hou, D., Zhang, G., and Zhou, Z. (2011). Application of Eddy Current Testing in Quantitative Evaluation of Rail Cracks. J. Zhejiang Univ. (Eng. Sci.), 45."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"8","article-title":"Identification of High-speed Railway Wheel Burn Based on Eddy Current Testing","volume":"62","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Railw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"341","article-title":"Advantage of a Combined Ultrasonic and Eddy Current Examination for Railway Inspection Trains","volume":"49","author":"Thomas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1177\/09544097211029534","article-title":"Limitations of Eddy Current Inspection for the Characterization of Near-Surface Cracks in Railheads","volume":"236","author":"Anandika","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"28","article-title":"Quantitative Evaluation Method of Eddy Current Detection for Rail Surface Crack","volume":"38","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos, H.M.G., Rocha, T., Pasadas, D., and Ribeiro, A.L. (2013, January 6\u20139). Velocity Induced Eddy Currents Technique to Inspect Cracks in Moving Conducting Media. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2013.6555552"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"6201907","article-title":"Electromagnetic Tomography Rail Defect Inspection","volume":"51","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2022.109568","article-title":"Inspection of RCF Rail Defects\u2014Review of NDT Methods","volume":"182","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Huang, F., Wang, X., An, S., and Shi, Q. (2019). Research on Eddy Current Testing Technology for Turnout Rail Surface. Railw. Tech. Superv., 47."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Hu, Q., Zhao, W., Zeng, X., Hou, K., Wang, D., Wu, X., Yang, G., and Xu, Q.A. (CN202010424106.X, 2020). Method and Device for Eddy Current Testing of Surface Cracks on Rails, CN202010424106.X."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-021-00810-9","article-title":"Rail Surface Defect Detection and Analysis Using Multi-Channel Eddy Current Method Based Algorithm for Defect Evaluation","volume":"40","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2012.05.019","article-title":"Correlation between Features of Acoustic Emission Signals and Mechanical Wear Mechanisms","volume":"292\u2013293","author":"Hase","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"246","article-title":"Application of Acoustic Emission Technology in Full-scale Aircraft Fatigue Test","volume":"32","author":"Geng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2014.08.028","article-title":"Empirical Investigation of Acoustic Emission Signals for Valve Failure Identification by Using Statistical Method","volume":"58","author":"Sim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"189","article-title":"Research and Application of Acoustic Emission Technology in Railway System Detection","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Anastasopoulos, A., Bollas, K., Papasalouros, D., and Kourousis, D. (2010, January 8\u201310). Acoustic Emission On-Line Inspection of Rail Wheels. Proceedings of the 29th Eur. Conf. Acoust. Emission Testing, Citeseer, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1134\/S106183090801004X","article-title":"The Possibilities of Acoustic Emission Testing of Rails during Exploitation","volume":"44","year":"2008","journal-title":"Russ. J. Nondestruct. Test."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2015.04.014","article-title":"Wavelet Packet Transform for Detection of Single Events in Acoustic Emission Signals","volume":"64\u201365","author":"Bianchi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2014.11.021","article-title":"Acoustic Emission Detection of Rail Defect Based on Wavelet Transform and Shannon Entropy","volume":"339","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"215","article-title":"Acoustic Emission Inspection of Rail Wheels","volume":"28","author":"Bollas","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Emiss."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2005.02.007","article-title":"Real-Time Acoustic Emission Monitoring for Surface Damage in Hard Machining","volume":"45","author":"Guo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Jiang, P. (2012). Research on Acoustic Emission Characteristics of Martensitic Transformation Process Based on Information Entropy. [Ph.D. Thesis, Northeast Petroleum University]."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"Jiang, P., Dai, G., and Jiang, C. (2012). Experimental Study on Acoustic Emission of Martensitic Transformation Process of GCr15 Steel. Hot Work. Technol., 41."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"22","article-title":"Acoustic Emission Characteristics of Martensitic Transformation of Metal Materials","volume":"38","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nondestruct. Test."},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"1","article-title":"Infrared Thermal Imaging Nondestructive Testing Technology and Its Application Status","volume":"26","author":"Dai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Tech. Autom. Appl."},{"key":"ref_117","unstructured":"Bai, L. (2013). Research on Eddy Current Pulsed Thermal Imaging Nondestructive Testing Technology. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China]."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Peng, J. (2015). Research on the Method of Detecting Rail Rolling Contact Fatigue by Eddy Current Pulsed Thermal Imaging. [Ph.D. Thesis, Southwest Jiaotong University]."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2015.05.006","article-title":"Investigation into Eddy Current Pulsed Thermography for Rolling Contact Fatigue Detection and Characterization","volume":"74","author":"Peng","year":"2015","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Bai, J., Peng, J., Zhang, K., Feng, L., and Gao, X. (2018). Detection of Steady-state Closed Fatigue Cracks Based on Eddy Current Pulsed Thermal Imaging Method. Nondestruct. Test., 40."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, L., Peng, J., Zhang, K., Bai, J., and Gao, X. (2018, January 25\u201329). Research on Eddy Current Pulsed Thermography for Squats in Railway. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Quantitative InfraRed Thermography, Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.21611\/qirt.2018.062"},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"Xu, C. (2008). Pulsed Infrared Thermal Imaging and Lock-in Thermal Imaging. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Capital Normal University]."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.4236\/eng.2013.51005","article-title":"NDI of Rail Squats and Estimating Defect Size and Location Using Lock-In Thermography","volume":"05","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"ENG"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2012.12.010","article-title":"Lock-in Thermographic Inspection of Squats on Rail Steel Head","volume":"57","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"Lv, B. (2014). Experimental Study on Fatigue Crack Propagation of U71Mn Steel Rail Based on Infrared Thermal Imaging. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Dalian University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411002","DOI":"10.3788\/LOP202158.0411002","article-title":"Depth Detection of Metal Surface Defects Based on Laser Thermal Imaging","volume":"58","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Laser Optoelectron. Prog."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dell\u2019Avvocato, G., Palumbo, D., Palmieri, M., and Galietti, U. (2021, January 26\u201328). Evaluation of Effectiveness of Heat Treatments in Boron Steel by Laser Thermography. Proceedings of the 16th International Workshop on Advanced Infrared Technology & Applications, Online.","DOI":"10.3390\/engproc2021008008"},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"Ding, Z. (2017). Research on Rail Surface Defect Detection Technology Based on Machine Vision. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Beijing Jiaotong University]."},{"key":"ref_129","first-page":"139","article-title":"Development of Vehicle-mounted Track Inspection System Based on Computer Vision","volume":"34","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"144","article-title":"Development of Vehicle-mounted Track Inspection System","volume":"489","author":"Han","year":"2014","journal-title":"Railw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"Ma, C., Zhang, E., Fang, Y., and Han, Q. (2017). Development and Application of Vehicle-mounted Track Condition Inspection Technology. China Railw., 91\u201395."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"25","article-title":"Research on Robust Real-time Wheel Burn Detection Algorithm","volume":"32","author":"Ren","year":"2011","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"Zhao, H., Huang, Y., Wang, S., and Li, Q. (2014). An Improved Algorithm for Wheel Burn Detection Based on Spatial Filtering. Comput. Sci., 41."},{"key":"ref_134","first-page":"1929","article-title":"Sparse Representation Model for Defect Detection and Its Application","volume":"51","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Comput. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santur, Y., Karakose, M., and Akin, E. (2016, January 19\u201321). Chouqet Fuzzy Integral Based Condition Monitoring and Analysis Approach Using Simulation Framework for Rail Faults. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 14th International Conference on Industrial Informatics (INDIN), Poitiers, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/INDIN.2016.7819184"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santur, Y., Karakose, M., and Akin, E. (2017, January 16\u201317). A New Rail Inspection Method Based on Deep Learning Using Laser Cameras. Proceedings of the 2017 International Artificial Intelligence and Data Processing Symposium (IDAP), Malatya, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/IDAP.2017.8090245"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, L., Yang, Q., Wang, J., Li, S., and Lei, W. (2018, January 11\u201314). Detection of Rail Surface Defects Based on CNN Image Recognition and Classification. Proceedings of the 2018 20th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), Chuncheon, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.23919\/ICACT.2018.8323642"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, T., Gao, J., Yang, J., and Yao, D. (2021). A Study on Railway Surface Defects Detection Based on Machine Vision. Entropy, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/e23111437"},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"29","article-title":"Research on High-speed Railway Track State Detection Method Based on Variance Analysis of Axle Box Acceleration","volume":"32","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Railw. Locomot. Car"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molodova, M., Li, Z., Nunez, A., and Dollevoet, R. (2013, January 6\u20139). Monitoring the Railway Infrastructure: Detection of Surface Defects Using Wavelets. Proceedings of the International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Hague, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2013.6728413"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4385","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2015.2389761","article-title":"Improvements in Axle Box Acceleration Measurements for the Detection of Light Squats in Railway Infrastructure","volume":"62","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_142","first-page":"92","article-title":"Analysis of Axle Box Acceleration Signal of Track Vehicle Based on Hilbert-Huang Transform","volume":"386","author":"Cao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Instrum. Tech. Sens."},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"Jamshidi, A., N\u00fa\u00f1ez, A., Molodova, M., Li, Z., and Dollevoet, R. (2016, January 5\u20138). Key Performance Indicators Using Robust Prediction Modelling to Consider Squats in Railway Infrastructure. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Railway Technology: Research, Development and Maintenance: RAILWAYS 2016, Cagliari, Italy."},{"key":"ref_144","first-page":"34","article-title":"Track Impact Index Method for Evaluating Short-wave Unevenness Diseases of High-speed Railway Track","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"China Railw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, X., Mao, X., Sun, S., Niu, L., Liu, J., and Xiao, B. (2021, January 15\u201317). Dynamic Diagnosis Method for Continuous and Equidistant Wheel Burn Based on Axle Box Acceleration. Proceedings of the 2021 Global Reliability and Prognostics and Health Management (PHM-Nanjing), Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/PHM-Nanjing52125.2021.9612797"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/11\/5240\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:46:24Z","timestamp":1760125584000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/11\/5240"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]]},"references-count":145,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s23115240"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23115240","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]]}}}