{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T09:02:09Z","timestamp":1769763729197,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]],"date-time":"2023-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686528000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education, Universities and Research of Italy","award":["CIR\u2212PER\u2212ACTRIS\u2212IT, MIUR\u2212CIR01_00015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CIR\u2212PER\u2212ACTRIS\u2212IT, MIUR\u2212CIR01_00015"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education, Universities and Research of Italy","award":["PIR-PER\u2212ACTRIS\u2212IT \u2212MIUR\u2212 PIR01_00015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PIR-PER\u2212ACTRIS\u2212IT \u2212MIUR\u2212 PIR01_00015"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education, Universities and Research of Italy","award":["PNRA project APP (Antarctic Precipitation Properties, 2015\/AZ3.02)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA project APP (Antarctic Precipitation Properties, 2015\/AZ3.02)"]}]},{"name":"Ministero della Transizione Ecologica (Italy)","award":["CIG n. 86347873A6 CUP. N. F59H21000010001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CIG n. 86347873A6 CUP. N. F59H21000010001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Clouds cover substantial parts of the Earth\u2019s surface and they are one of the most essential components of the global climate system impacting the Earth\u2019s radiation balance as well as the water cycle redistributing water around the globe as precipitation. Therefore, continuous observation of clouds is of primary interest in climate and hydrological studies. This work documents the first efforts in Italy in remote sensing clouds and precipitation using a combination of K- and W-band (24 and 94 GHz, respectively) radar profilers. Such a dual-frequency radar configuration has not been widely used yet, but it could catch on in the near future given its lower initial cost and ease of deployment for commercially available systems at 24 GHz, with respect to more established configurations. A field campaign running at the Casale Calore observatory at the University of L\u2019Aquila, Italy, nestled in the Apennine mountain range is described. The campaign features are preceded by a review of the literature and the underpinning theoretical background that might help newcomers, especially in the Italian community, to approach cloud and precipitation remote sensing. This activity takes place in interesting time for radar sensing clouds and precipitation, stimulated both by the launch of the ESA\/JAXA EarthCARE satellite missions scheduled in 2024, which will have on-board, among other instruments, a W-band Doppler cloud radar and the proposal of new missions using cloud radars currently undergoing their feasibility studies (e.g., WIVERN and AOS in Europe and Canada, and U.S., respectively)<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23125524","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,13]],"date-time":"2023-06-13T02:00:45Z","timestamp":1686621645000},"page":"5524","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Cloud and Precipitation Profiling Radars: The First Combined W- and K-Band Radar Profiler Measurements in Italy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0099-0393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Montopoli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC), 00133 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Center of Excellence Telesensing of Environment and Model Prediction of Severe Events (CETEMPS), 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7047-6213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Bracci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC), 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9500-5004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Adirosi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC), 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Iarlori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence Telesensing of Environment and Model Prediction of Severe Events (CETEMPS), 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Physical and Chemical Sciences (DSFC), University of L\u2019Aquila, 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Saverio","family":"Di Fabio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence Telesensing of Environment and Model Prediction of Severe Events (CETEMPS), 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2509-6777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele","family":"Lidori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence Telesensing of Environment and Model Prediction of Severe Events (CETEMPS), 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Balotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence Telesensing of Environment and Model Prediction of Severe Events (CETEMPS), 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Physical and Chemical Sciences (DSFC), University of L\u2019Aquila, 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5217-1205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Baldini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC), 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5277-6527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Rizi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence Telesensing of Environment and Model Prediction of Severe Events (CETEMPS), 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Physical and Chemical Sciences (DSFC), University of L\u2019Aquila, 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1126\/science.243.4887.57","article-title":"Cloud-Radiative Forcing and Climate: Results from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment","volume":"243","author":"Ramanathan","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.748","article-title":"Cloud statistics and cloud radiative effect for a low-mountain site","volume":"137","author":"Ebell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-19-0080.1","article-title":"Radiative Effect of Clouds at Ny-\u00c5lesund, Svalbard, as Inferred from Ground-Based Remote Sensing Observations","volume":"59","author":"Ebell","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1494","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.481","article-title":"Verification of cloud-fraction forecasts","volume":"135","author":"Hogan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JAMC2333.1","article-title":"Using Continuous Ground-Based Radar and Lidar Measurements for Evaluating the Representation of Clouds in Four Operational Models","volume":"49","author":"Bouniol","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1994)075<1201:TARMPP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program: Programmatic Background and Design of the Cloud and Radiation Test Bed","volume":"75","author":"Stokes","year":"1994","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1554135","article-title":"The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program","volume":"56","author":"Ackerman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E588","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-18-0288.1","article-title":"The ARM Radar Network: At the Leading Edge of Cloud and Precipitation Observations","volume":"101","author":"Kollias","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29.1","DOI":"10.1175\/AMSMONOGRAPHS-D-15-0045.1","article-title":"Parallel Developments and Formal Collaboration between European Atmospheric Profiling Observatories and the U.S. ARM Research Program","volume":"57","author":"Haeffelin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meteorol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1256\/rj.01.208","article-title":"Characteristics of mixed-phase clouds. I: Lidar, radar and aircraft observations from CLARE\u201998","volume":"129","author":"Hogan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-12-00227.1","article-title":"The EarthCARE Satellite: The Next Step Forward in Global Measurements of Clouds, Aerosols, Precipitation, and Radiation","volume":"96","author":"Illingworth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-88-6-883","article-title":"Cloudnet: Continuous Evaluation of Cloud Profiles in Seven Operational Models Using Ground-Based Observations","volume":"88","author":"Illingworth","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2023, March 30). ACTRIS-IT. Available online: http:\/\/www.actris.it\/index.php\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5459","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-21-5459-2017","article-title":"Impact of multiple radar reflectivity data assimilation on the numerical simulation of a flash flood event during the HyMeX campaign","volume":"21","author":"Maiello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-14-0084.1","article-title":"Influence of Beam Broadening on the Accuracy of Radar Polarimetric Rainfall Estimation","volume":"16","author":"Gorgucci","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montopoli, M., Roberto, N., Adirosi, E., Gorgucci, E., and Baldini, L. (2017). Investigation of Weather Radar Quantitative Precipitation Estimation Methodologies in Complex Orography. Atmosphere, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos8020034"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1343.1","article-title":"Automated retrievals of precipitation parameters using non-Rayleigh scattering at 95 GHz","volume":"27","author":"Giangrande","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-10-05000.1","article-title":"Characterization of Vertical Velocity and Drop Size Distribution Parameters in Widespread Precipitation at ARM Facilities","volume":"51","author":"Giangrande","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1999)016<0216:AODFMW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Application of Dual-Frequency Millimeter-Wave Doppler Spectra for the Retrieval of Drop Size Distributions and Vertical Air Motion in Rain","volume":"16","author":"Firda","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5585","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD023023","article-title":"Dual-frequency radar Doppler spectral retrieval of rain drop size distributions and entangled dynamics variables","volume":"120","author":"Tridon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matrosov, S.Y. (2011). Feasibility of using radar differential Doppler velocity and dual-frequency ratio for sizing particles in thick ice clouds. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD015857"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-19-0018.1","article-title":"Observational and Modeling Study of Ice Hydrometeor Radar Dual-Wavelength Ratios","volume":"58","author":"Matrosov","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0181.1","article-title":"Characteristic Raindrop Size Retrievals from Measurements of Differences in Vertical Doppler Velocities at Ka- and W-Band Radar Frequencies","volume":"34","author":"Matrosov","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2787","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-18-0018.1","article-title":"On the Realism of the Rain Microphysics Representation of a Squall Line in the WRF Model. Part I: Evaluation with Multifrequency Cloud Radar Doppler Spectra Observations","volume":"147","author":"Tridon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-15-365-2022","article-title":"Using artificial neural networks to predict riming from Doppler cloud radar observations","volume":"15","author":"Vogl","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5343","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-15-5343-2022","article-title":"Identifying cloud droplets beyond lidar attenuation from vertically pointing cloud radar observations using artificial neural networks","volume":"15","author":"Schimmel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-12-0286.1","article-title":"Snow Studies. Part IV: Ensemble Retrieval of Snow Microphysics from Dual-Wavelength Vertically Pointing Radars","volume":"71","author":"Szyrmer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022JD036860","DOI":"10.1029\/2022JD036860","article-title":"Ice Aggregation in Low-Level Mixed-Phase Clouds at a High Arctic Site: Enhanced by Dendritic Growth and Absent Close to the Melting Level","volume":"127","author":"Chellini","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL067618","article-title":"First observations of triple-frequency radar Doppler spectra in snowfall: Interpretation and applications","volume":"43","author":"Kneifel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2605","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-18-0036.1","article-title":"Nonparametric Methodology to Estimate Precipitating Ice from Multiple-Frequency Radar Reflectivity Observations","volume":"57","author":"Grecu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13807","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD028603","article-title":"Retrievals of Riming and Snow Density from Vertically Pointing Doppler Radars","volume":"123","author":"Mason","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4993","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-4993-2019","article-title":"The importance of particle size distribution and internal structure for triple-frequency radar retrievals of the morphology of snow","volume":"12","author":"Mason","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5471","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-5471-2018","article-title":"Retrieval of snowflake microphysical properties from multifrequency radar observations","volume":"11","author":"Leinonen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5753","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-5753-2019","article-title":"Rapid ice aggregation process revealed through triple-wavelength Doppler spectrum radar analysis","volume":"19","author":"Barrett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019EA000789","DOI":"10.1029\/2019EA000789","article-title":"Triple-Frequency Doppler Retrieval of Characteristic Raindrop Size","volume":"7","author":"Battaglia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2001)040<1665:CTAMPR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Cloud Type and Macrophysical Property Retrieval Using Multiple Remote Sensors","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JAMC2467.1","article-title":"Clouds at Arctic Atmospheric Observatories. Part I: Occurrence and Macrophysical Properties","volume":"50","author":"Shupe","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4105","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-4105-2019","article-title":"Statistics on clouds and their relation to thermodynamic conditions at Ny-\u00c5lesund using ground-based sensor synergy","volume":"19","author":"Nomokonova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14983","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-20-14983-2020","article-title":"Properties of Arctic liquid and mixed-phase clouds from shipborne Cloudnet observations during ACSE 2014","volume":"20","author":"Achtert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00eerloag\u0103, R., Ene, D., Boldeanu, M., Antonescu, B., O\u2019Connor, E.J., and \u015etefan, S. (2022). Ground-Based Measurements of Cloud Properties at the Bucharest\u2014Magurele Cloudnet Station: First Results. Atmosphere, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13091445"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1987)004<0036:AGDRFC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A 94-GHz Doppler Radar for Cloud Observations","volume":"4","author":"Lhermitte","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-83-10-1471","article-title":"Why Mie?: Accurate Observations of Vertical Air Velocities and Raindrops Using a Cloud Radar","volume":"83","author":"Kollias","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1990)007<0464:AASOMW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Attenuation and Scattering of Millimeter Wavelength Radiation by Clouds and Precipitation","volume":"7","author":"Lhermitte","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH1768.1","article-title":"Stratocumulus Liquid Water Content from Dual-Wavelength Radar","volume":"22","author":"Hogan","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)020<1264:CLWAIC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Cloud Liquid Water and Ice Content Retrieval by Multiwavelength Radar","volume":"20","author":"Gaussiat","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2340.1","article-title":"The Retrieval of Ice Water Content from Radar Reflectivity Factor and Temperature and Its Use in Evaluating a Mesoscale Model","volume":"45","author":"Hogan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, D., Johnson, K., Liu, Y., and Wiscombe, W. (2009). High resolution retrieval of liquid water vertical distributions using collocated Ka-band and W-band cloud radars. Geophys. Res. Lett., 36.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL041364"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delano\u00eb, J., and Hogan, R.J. (2008). A variational scheme for retrieving ice cloud properties from combined radar, lidar, and infrared radiometer. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD009000"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3010","article-title":"Rain retrieval from dual-frequency radar Doppler spectra: Validation and potential for a midlatitude precipitating case-study","volume":"143","author":"Tridon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5065","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-13-5065-2020","article-title":"Estimating total attenuation using Rayleigh targets at cloud top: Applications in multilayer and mixed-phase clouds observed by ground-based multifrequency radars","volume":"13","author":"Tridon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14184","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD031188","article-title":"The Vertical Structure of Liquid Water Content in Shallow Clouds as Retrieved from Dual-Wavelength Radar Observations","volume":"124","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-20-0095.1","article-title":"Snowfall-Rate Retrieval for K- and W-Band Radar Measurements Designed in Hyyti\u00e4l\u00e4, Finland, and Tested at Ny-\u00c5lesund, Svalbard, Norway","volume":"60","author":"Schoger","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Hogan, R., and Connor, E. (2023, June 08). Facilitating Cloud Radar and Lidar Algorithms: The Cloudnet Instrument Synergy\/Target Categorization Product. Available online: http:\/\/www.met.rdg.ac.uk\/~swrhgnrj\/publications\/categorization.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10811","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-17-10811-2017","article-title":"Radiation in fog: Quantification of the impact on fog liquid water based on ground-based remote sensing","volume":"17","author":"Haeffelin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4929","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-14-4929-2021","article-title":"W-band radar observations for fog forecast improvement: An analysis of model and forward operator errors","volume":"14","author":"Bell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2000)017<0027:MCSICU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Measuring Crystal Size in Cirrus Using 35- and 94-GHz Radars","volume":"17","author":"Hogan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-11-845-2019","article-title":"The TRIple-frequency and Polarimetric radar Experiment for improving process observations of winter precipitation","volume":"11","author":"Kneifel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)20<572:ACOGRU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Absolute Calibration of 94\/95-GHz Radars Using Rain","volume":"20","author":"Hogan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1443.1","article-title":"CloudSat as a Global Radar Calibrator","volume":"28","author":"Protat","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4949","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-4949-2019","article-title":"Calibration of the 2007\u20132017 record of Atmospheric Radiation Measurements cloud radar observations using CloudSat","volume":"12","author":"Kollias","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5799","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-13-5799-2020","article-title":"Evaluation of the reflectivity calibration of W-band radars based on observations in rain","volume":"13","author":"Myagkov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-1039-2016","article-title":"Ground-based remote sensing scheme for monitoring aerosol\u2013cloud interactions","volume":"9","author":"Sarna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-021-00876-0","article-title":"Influence of biogenic emissions from boreal forests on aerosol\u2013cloud interactions","volume":"15","author":"Tabakova","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costanzo, S. (2017). Wave Propagation Concepts for Near-Future Telecommunication Systems, IntechOpen. Chapter 3.","DOI":"10.5772\/61383"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"243","article-title":"The Terminal Velocity of Fall for Water Droplets in Stagnant Air","volume":"6","author":"Gunn","year":"1949","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1962)019<0503:RMODSD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Radar Measurements of Drop-Size Distribution","volume":"19","author":"Rogers","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.001655","article-title":"High-level interface to T-matrix scattering calculations: Architecture, capabilities and limitations","volume":"22","author":"Leinonen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1969)008<0249:TVORA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Terminal Velocity of Raindrops Aloft","volume":"8","author":"Foote","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, C.R. (2022). How Much Attenuation Extinguishes mm-Wave Vertically Pointing Radar Return Signals?. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14061305"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2001)040<1118:TCONDT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Concept of \u201cNormalized\u201d Distribution to Describe Raindrop Spectra: A Tool for Cloud Physics and Cloud Remote Sensing","volume":"40","author":"Testud","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2016.07.010","article-title":"Raindrop size distribution: Fitting performance of common theoretical models","volume":"96","author":"Adirosi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1998)037<1510:ADWRMT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Dual-Wavelength Radar Method to Measure Snowfall Rate","volume":"37","author":"Matrosov","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-22-0002.1","article-title":"A Generalized Dual-Frequency Ratio (DFR) Approach for Rain Retrievals","volume":"39","author":"Meneghini","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-18-0037.1","article-title":"A Modified Dual-Wavelength Technique for Ku- and Ka-Band Radar Rain Retrieval","volume":"58","author":"Liao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5548","DOI":"10.1002\/2013GL057454","article-title":"Disentangling Mie and attenuation effects in rain using a Ka-W dual-wavelength Doppler spectral ratio technique","volume":"40","author":"Tridon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kneifel, S., Kulie, M.S., and Bennartz, R. (2011). A triple-frequency approach to retrieve microphysical snowfall parameters. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD015430"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022EA002299","DOI":"10.1029\/2022EA002299","article-title":"Cloud and Precipitation Particle Identification Using Cloud Radar and Lidar Measurements: Retrieval Technique and Validation","volume":"9","author":"Romatschke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"1","article-title":"Combined Wind Lidar and Cloud Radar for Wind Profiling","volume":"2022","author":"Nuijens","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2000). Cloud boundary height measurements using lidar and radar. Phys. Chem. Earth Part B Hydrol. Ocean. Atmos., 25, 129\u2013134.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1464-1909(99)00139-2"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4414","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.7081","article-title":"Building a local climate reference dataset: Application to the Abruzzo region (Central Italy), 1930\u20132019","volume":"41","author":"Curci","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.08.005","article-title":"Modelling air quality impact of a biomass energy power plant in a mountain valley in Central Italy","volume":"62","author":"Curci","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adirosi, E., Porc\u00f9, F., Montopoli, M., Baldini, L., Bracci, A., Capozzi, V., Annella, C., Budillon, G., Bucchignani, E., and Zollo, A.L. (2023). Database of the Italian disdrometer network. Earth Syst. Sci. Data, under review.","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-2022-317"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2865","DOI":"10.1029\/93GL02957","article-title":"Continuous lidar measurements of stratospheric aerosols and ozone after the Pinatubo eruption. Part I: Dial ozone retrieval in presence of stratospheric aerosol layers","volume":"20","author":"Masci","year":"1993","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"The EARLINET Publishing Group 2000\u20132015, Acheson, K., Adam, M., Alados-Arboledas, L., Althausen, D., Amato, F., Amiridis, V., Amodeo, A., Ansmann, A., and Apituley, A. (2023, June 08). EARLINET Climatology 2000\u20132015. Available online: https:\/\/www.wdc-climate.de\/ui\/entry?acronym=EARLINET_Climatology_2000-2015."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2023, March 30). EUMETNET\/E-PROFILE Network. Available online: https:\/\/e-profile.eu."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1987)044<1509:ANMFTE>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A New Model for the Equilibrium Shape of Raindrops","volume":"44","author":"Beard","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/12\/5524\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:53:30Z","timestamp":1760126010000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/12\/5524"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s23125524"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23125524","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]}}}