{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:17:51Z","timestamp":1760149071316,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,29]],"date-time":"2023-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687996800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"]}]},{"name":"2022 National Young Foreign Talents Program of China","award":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"]}]},{"name":"Jiangsu International Joint Research and Development Program","award":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"]}]},{"name":"Nanjing International Joint Research and Development Program","award":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B220204002","QN2022143002L","BZ2022010","202112003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The mechanical properties of ice in cold regions are significantly affected by the variation in temperature. The existing methods to determine ice properties commonly rely on one-off and destructive compression and strength experiments, which are unable to acquire the varying properties of ice due to temperature variations. To this end, an embedded ultrasonic system is proposed to inspect the mechanical properties of ice in an online and real-time mode. With this system, ultrasonic experiments are conducted to testify to the validity of the system in continuously inspecting the mechanical properties of ice and, in particular, to verify its capabilities to obtain ice properties for various temperature conditions. As an extension of the experiment, an associated refined numerical model is elaborated by mimicking the number, size, and agglomeration of bubbles using a stochastic distribution. This system can continuously record the wave propagation velocity in the ice, giving rise to ice properties through the intrinsic mechanics relationship. In addition, this model facilitates having insights into the effect of properties, e.g., porosity, on ice properties. The proposed embedded ultrasonic system largely outperforms the existing methods to obtain ice properties, holding promise for developing online and real-time monitoring techniques to assess the ice condition closely related to structures in cold regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23136045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]],"date-time":"2023-06-30T01:14:12Z","timestamp":1688087652000},"page":"6045","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Embedded Ultrasonic Inspection on the Mechanical Properties of Cold Region Ice under Varying Temperatures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Huimin","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanics and Materials, Hohai University, Nanjing 210024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanics and Materials, Hohai University, Nanjing 210024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6598-8713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nizar Faisal","family":"Alkayem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China"},{"name":"College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maosen","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanics and Materials, Hohai University, Nanjing 210024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09051","article-title":"The central role of diminishing sea ice in recent Arctic temperature amplification","volume":"464","author":"Screen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL045022","article-title":"Contribution of sea ice loss to Arctic amplification","volume":"37","author":"Kumar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2013.12.023","article-title":"Sensitivity to climate change of the thermal structure and ice cover regime of three hydropower reservoirs","volume":"510","author":"Gebre","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marstruc.2017.04.004","article-title":"Simulating transverse icebreaking process considering both crushing and bending failures","volume":"54","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1134\/S1063784207010215","article-title":"Deformation of freshwater ice cover measured by a horizontal electric antenna","volume":"52","author":"Balkhanov","year":"2007","journal-title":"Tech. Phys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2010.10.005","article-title":"Plasticity based material modelling of ice and its application to ship\u2013iceberg impacts","volume":"65","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2006.11.002","article-title":"The structure and mechanical properties of river and lake ice","volume":"48","author":"Iliescu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.05.129","article-title":"Progress on ultrasonic guided waves de-icing techniques in improving aviation energy efficiency","volume":"79","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apm.2018.08.015","article-title":"A novel characterization method of piezoelectric composite material based on particle swarm optimization algorithm","volume":"66","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Model."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2018.03.002","article-title":"Estimation of the uniaxial compressive strength of Arctic sea ice during melt season","volume":"151","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s13131-015-0598-7","article-title":"The uniaxial compressive strength of the Arctic summer sea ice","volume":"34","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2019.101853","article-title":"Full-scale flexural strength of sea ice and freshwater ice in Spitsbergen Fjords and North-West Barents Sea","volume":"90","author":"Karulina","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1007\/s11204-019-09616-4","article-title":"Temperature Dependence of Stress-Strain Properties of Freshwater Ice","volume":"56","author":"Aksenov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soil Mech. Found. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2006.08.025","article-title":"Field testing of uniaxial compression strength of columnar sea ice","volume":"48","author":"Moslet","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121183","article-title":"Research on the numerical simulation for plastic model of ice as building materials under triaxial compression","volume":"268","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-021-00731-8","article-title":"The Potential Scope of the Ultrasonic Surface Reflection Method Towards Mechanical Characterisation of Isotropic Materials. Part 2. Experimental Results","volume":"61","author":"Tinard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-021-00730-9","article-title":"The Potential Scope of the Ultrasonic Surface Reflection Method Towards Mechanical Characterisation of Isotropic Materials. Part 1. A Theoretical Analysis","volume":"61","author":"Tinard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-011-9585-x","article-title":"The Potential of Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Measurement of Residual Stresses by Modal Frequency Spacing using Leaky Lamb Waves","volume":"52","author":"Zhu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13002","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201710813002","article-title":"Effect of using different types of methods for the derivation of elastic modulus of bone\u2014A critical survey","volume":"108","author":"Mustansar","year":"2017","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2018.04.012","article-title":"Ultrasonic imaging of multi-layer concrete structures","volume":"98","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2021.102460","article-title":"Comparative study of ultrasonic techniques for reconstructing the multilayer structure of composites","volume":"121","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"439","article-title":"Determination of Young modulus by using Rayleigh waves","volume":"77","author":"Moreno","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Model."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2021.114617","article-title":"Constraining Europa\u2019s ice shell thickness with fundamental mode surface wave dispersion","volume":"369","author":"Maguire","year":"2021","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3469","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1898663","article-title":"Estimation of dynamic elastic constants from the amplitude and velocity of Rayleigh waves","volume":"117","author":"Nieves","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2009.12.026","article-title":"Elastic constants of a plate from impact-echo resonance and Rayleigh wave velocity","volume":"329","author":"Medina","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2019.05.001","article-title":"The non-linear behavior of aqueous model ice in downward flexure","volume":"165","author":"Polach","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2007.03.016","article-title":"Results of numerical simulations of growler impact tests","volume":"49","author":"Gagnon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2575","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2575","article-title":"Bayesian dynamic forecasting of structural strain response using structural health monitoring data","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Struct. Control. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2021.113554","article-title":"Modelling and forecasting of SHM strain measurement for a large-scale suspension bridge during typhoon events using variational heteroscedastic Gaussian process","volume":"251","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s11012-012-9595-5","article-title":"Particle-based numerical modeling of AE statistics in disordered materials","volume":"48","author":"Invernizzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Meccanica"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechrescom.2014.12.007","article-title":"Numerical modeling of damage detection in concrete beams using piezoelectric patches","volume":"64","author":"Markovic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mech. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1002\/cjg2.708","article-title":"A method of detecting seismic singularities using combined wavelet with fractal","volume":"48","author":"Cao","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1080\/0305215X.2017.1414206","article-title":"Damage identification in three-dimensional structures using single-objective evolutionary algorithms and finite element model updating: Evaluation and comparison","volume":"50","author":"Alkayem","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Optim."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2019.102890","article-title":"Properties of ice from first-year ridges in the Barents Sea and Fram Strait","volume":"168","author":"Bonath","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2020.10.031","article-title":"Fracture of warm S2 columnar freshwater ice: Size and rate effects","volume":"202","author":"Gharamti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"6","article-title":"Probability distribution of sea ice fatigue parameters in JZ20-2 sea area of the Liaodong Bay","volume":"20","author":"Ji","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijimpeng.2020.103594","article-title":"Numerical simulations for plates under ice impact based on a concrete constitutive ice model","volume":"143","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Impact Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cnsns.2020.105614","article-title":"Numerical modeling for strain rate effect and size effect of ice under uniaxial tension and compression","volume":"96","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Nonlinear Sci. Numer. Simul."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Wei, L., and Cao, M. (2019). Damage Quantification with Embedded Piezoelectric Aggregates Based on Wavelet Packet Energy Analysis. Sensors, 19.","key":"ref_39","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020425"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"591","article-title":"Concrete strength monitoring based on the variation of ultrasonic waveform acquired by piezoelectric aggregates","volume":"76","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Struct. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.06.033","article-title":"Detection of minor damage in structures with guided wave signals and nonlinear oscillator","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"309","article-title":"Ultrasonic NDE of cast stainless steel","volume":"22","author":"Kupperman","year":"1989","journal-title":"NDT Int."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4025","DOI":"10.1021\/j100244a004","article-title":"Elastic Constants of Ice Samples by Brillouin Elastic Constants of Ice Samples by Brillouin Spectroscopy","volume":"87","author":"Gammon","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem."},{"unstructured":"Randhawa, K.S. (2018). The Measurement of the Young\u2019s Modulus of Ice with Ultrasonic Waves. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universit\u00e4t Hamburg].","key":"ref_44"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2016.09.001","article-title":"Sea ice density measurements. Methods and uncertainties","volume":"131","author":"Pustogvar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-232X(95)00007-X","article-title":"A review of sea ice density","volume":"24","author":"Timco","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-232X(05)80003-5","article-title":"Compressive strength of sea ice sheets","volume":"17","author":"Timco","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2019.111834","article-title":"Mesoscopic numerical investigation of dynamic mechanical properties of ice with entrapped air bubbles based on a stochastic sparse distribution mechanism","volume":"236","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2018.07.047","article-title":"Debonding detection for rectangular CFST using surface wave measurement: Test and multi-physical fields numerical simulation","volume":"117","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.3189\/S0022143000008364","article-title":"Equations for Determining the Gas and Brine Volumes in Sea-Ice Samples","volume":"29","author":"Cox","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/13\/6045\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:04:01Z","timestamp":1760126641000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/13\/6045"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,29]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s23136045"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23136045","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,29]]}}}