{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T16:33:11Z","timestamp":1780504391854,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":184,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]],"date-time":"2023-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688601600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2620688"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2620688"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite the substantial progress achieved in the development and integration of augmented reality (AR) in surgical robotic and autonomous systems (RAS), the center of focus in most devices remains on improving end-effector dexterity and precision, as well as improved access to minimally invasive surgeries. This paper aims to provide a systematic review of different types of state-of-the-art surgical robotic platforms while identifying areas for technological improvement. We associate specific control features, such as haptic feedback, sensory stimuli, and human\u2013robot collaboration, with AR technology to perform complex surgical interventions for increased user perception of the augmented world. Current researchers in the field have, for long, faced innumerable issues with low accuracy in tool placement around complex trajectories, pose estimation, and difficulty in depth perception during two-dimensional medical imaging. A number of robots described in this review, such as Novarad and SpineAssist, are analyzed in terms of their hardware features, computer vision systems (such as deep learning algorithms), and the clinical relevance of the literature. We attempt to outline the shortcomings in current optimization algorithms for surgical robots (such as YOLO and LTSM) whilst providing mitigating solutions to internal tool-to-organ collision detection and image reconstruction. The accuracy of results in robot end-effector collisions and reduced occlusion remain promising within the scope of our research, validating the propositions made for the surgical clearance of ever-expanding AR technology in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23136202","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,7]],"date-time":"2023-07-07T01:57:09Z","timestamp":1688695029000},"page":"6202","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Augmented Reality (AR) for Surgical Robotic and Autonomous Systems: State of the Art, Challenges, and Solutions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2410-8203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jenna","family":"Seetohul","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Group, School of Engineering, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6122-5719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahmood","family":"Shafiee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Group, School of Engineering, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NT, UK"},{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0847-8880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Sirlantzis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Technology and Design, Canterbury Christ Church University,\u00a0Canterbury CT1 1QU, UK"},{"name":"Intelligent Interactions Group, School of Engineering, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1177\/2043820620934267","article-title":"Containing COVID-19 in China: AI and the robotic restructuring of future cities","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dialogues Hum. 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