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By the lateral and axial offset of input light into TMMF, several high-order modes are excited in TMMF, and the speckle pattern is spatially modulated, which affects an asymmetrical speckle pattern with a random intensity distribution at the output of TMMF. When the TMMF is immersed in the liquid analyte with RI variation, it influences the guided modes, as well as the mode interference, in TMMF. A digital image correlations method with zero-mean normalized cross-correlation coefficient is explored to digitize the speckle image differences, analyzing the RI variation. It is found that the lateral- and axial-offsets-induced speckle sensor can enhance the RI sensitivity from 6.41 to 19.52 RIU\u22121 compared to the one without offset. The developed TMMF speckle sensor shows an RI resolution of 5.84 \u00d7 10\u22125 over a linear response range of 1.3164 to 1.3588 at 1550 nm. The experimental results indicate the FSS provides a simple, efficient, and economic approach to RI sensing, which exhibits an enormous potential in the image-based ocean-sensing application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23156814","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,31]],"date-time":"2023-07-31T10:08:14Z","timestamp":1690798094000},"page":"6814","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Spatially Modulated Fiber Speckle for High-Sensitivity Refractive Index Sensing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Penglai","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Faculty of Innovation Engineering, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau 999078, China"},{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, 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