{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T02:23:12Z","timestamp":1785205392629,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]],"date-time":"2023-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany in the framework of VIVID","award":["16ME0170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16ME0170"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this work, we introduce a novel approach to model the rain and fog effect on the light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensor performance for the simulation-based testing of LiDAR systems. The proposed methodology allows for the simulation of the rain and fog effect using the rigorous applications of the Mie scattering theory on the time domain for transient and point cloud levels for spatial analyses. The time domain analysis permits us to benchmark the virtual LiDAR signal attenuation and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) caused by rain and fog droplets. In addition, the detection rate (DR), false detection rate (FDR), and distance error\u00a0derror\u00a0of the virtual LiDAR sensor due to rain and fog droplets are evaluated on the point cloud level. The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) is used to quantify the simulation and real measurement results on the time domain and point cloud levels for the rain and fog droplets. The results of the simulation and real measurements match well on the time domain and point cloud levels if the simulated and real rain distributions are the same. The real and virtual LiDAR sensor performance degrades more under the influence of fog droplets than in rain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23156891","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]],"date-time":"2023-08-03T11:23:03Z","timestamp":1691061783000},"page":"6891","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["A Methodology to Model the Rain and Fog Effect on the Performance of Automotive LiDAR Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8777-8805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arsalan","family":"Haider","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Driver Assistance Systems and Connected Mobility (IFM), Kempten University of Applied Sciences, Junkersstrasse 1A, 87734 Benningen, Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Measurement Systems and Sensor Technology, Technical University of Munich, Theresienstrasse 90, 80333 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcell","family":"Pigniczki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Driver Assistance Systems and Connected Mobility (IFM), Kempten University of Applied Sciences, Junkersstrasse 1A, 87734 Benningen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shotaro","family":"Koyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Vehicle Research Institute, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Shimoogino 1030, Atsugi 243-0292, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael H.","family":"K\u00f6hler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Blickfeld GmbH, Barthstrasse 12, 80339 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5545-6126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lukas","family":"Haas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Driver Assistance Systems and Connected Mobility (IFM), Kempten University of Applied Sciences, Junkersstrasse 1A, 87734 Benningen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maximilian","family":"Fink","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Measurement Systems and Sensor Technology, Technical University of Munich, Theresienstrasse 90, 80333 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Schardt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Blickfeld GmbH, Barthstrasse 12, 80339 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Koji","family":"Nagase","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Vehicle Research Institute, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Shimoogino 1030, Atsugi 243-0292, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Zeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Driver Assistance Systems and Connected Mobility (IFM), Kempten University of Applied Sciences, Junkersstrasse 1A, 87734 Benningen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6210-7108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulkadir","family":"Eryildirim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infineon Technologies Austria AG, 4040 Linz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim","family":"Poguntke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Driver Assistance Systems and Connected Mobility (IFM), Kempten University of Applied Sciences, Junkersstrasse 1A, 87734 Benningen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hideo","family":"Inoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Vehicle Research Institute, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Shimoogino 1030, Atsugi 243-0292, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Jakobi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Measurement Systems and Sensor Technology, Technical University of Munich, Theresienstrasse 90, 80333 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander W.","family":"Koch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Measurement Systems and Sensor Technology, Technical University of Munich, Theresienstrasse 90, 80333 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2022.3162886","article-title":"Comparative Analysis of Radar and Lidar Technologies for Automotive Applications","volume":"15","author":"Bilik","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. 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