{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T06:01:50Z","timestamp":1774591310335,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]],"date-time":"2023-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Beijing Nature Science Foundation of China","award":["4232014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4232014"]}]},{"name":"Beijing Nature Science Foundation of China","award":["YYJC072022008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YYJC072022008"]}]},{"name":"SongShan Laboratory Foundation","award":["4232014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4232014"]}]},{"name":"SongShan Laboratory Foundation","award":["YYJC072022008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YYJC072022008"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In a data-driven context, bionic polarization navigation requires a mass of skylight polarization pattern data with diversity, complete ground truth, and scene information. However, acquiring such data in urban environments, where bionic polarization navigation is widely utilized, remains challenging. In this paper, we proposed a virtual-real-fusion framework of the skylight polarization pattern simulator and provided a data preparation method complementing the existing pure simulation or measurement method. The framework consists of a virtual part simulating the ground truth of skylight polarization pattern, a real part measuring scene information, and a fusion part fusing information of the first two parts according to the imaging projection relationship. To illustrate the framework, we constructed a simulator instance adapted to the urban environment and clear weather and verified it in 174 urban scenes. The results showed that the simulator can provide a mass of diverse urban skylight polarization pattern data with scene information and complete ground truth based on a few practical measurements. Moreover, we released a dataset based on the results and opened our code to facilitate researchers preparing and adapting their datasets to their research targets.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23156906","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]],"date-time":"2023-08-03T11:23:03Z","timestamp":1691061783000},"page":"6906","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Skylight Polarization Pattern Simulator Based on a Virtual-Real-Fusion Framework for Urban Bionic Polarization Navigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Qianhui","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Precision Optoelectronic Measurement Instrument and Technology, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Liquan","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Precision Optoelectronic Measurement Instrument and Technology, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yao","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Precision Optoelectronic Measurement Instrument and Technology, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qun","family":"Hao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Precision Optoelectronic Measurement Instrument and Technology, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7926-2294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiahang","family":"Lv","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Precision Optoelectronic Measurement Instrument and Technology, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Precision Optoelectronic Measurement Instrument and Technology, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1702-7122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Precision Optoelectronic Measurement Instrument and Technology, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1080\/00423110903406649","article-title":"A Review of Ground Vehicle Dynamic State Estimations Utilising GPS\/INS","volume":"49","author":"Whidborne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6288","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2582751","article-title":"On Misalignment between Magnetometer and Inertial Sensors","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau0307","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aau0307","article-title":"AntBot: A Six-Legged Walking Robot Able to Home like Desert Ants in Outdoor Environments","volume":"4","author":"Dupeyroux","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Kong, F., Xu, H., Guo, X., Li, H., Ruan, Y., Cao, S., and Guo, Y. (2023). Biomimetic Polarized Light Navigation Sensor: A Review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23135848"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, F., Guo, Y., Zhang, J., Fan, X., and Guo, X. Review on Bio-Inspired Polarized Skylight Navigation. Chin. J. Aeronaut., 2023. in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2023.05.024"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01350213","article-title":"How Bees Analyse the Polarization Patterns in the Sky\u2014Experiments and Model","volume":"154","author":"Rossel","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. A"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5287","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.85.14.5287","article-title":"Path Integration in Desert Ants, Cataglyphis Fortis","volume":"85","author":"Muller","year":"1988","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Coulson, K. (1988). Polarization and Intensity of Light in the Atmosphere, A Deepak Pub."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.381612","article-title":"Polarized Skylight Compass Based on a Soft-Margin Support Vector Machine Working in Cloudy Conditions","volume":"59","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1007\/s42235-022-00310-0","article-title":"Bioinspired Polarized Skylight Orientation Determination Artificial Neural Network","volume":"20","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Bionic Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13681","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.27.013681","article-title":"Bio-Inspired Orientation Using the Polarization Pattern in the Sky Based on Artificial Neural Networks","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15834","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.015834","article-title":"Novel Robust Skylight Compass Method Based on Full-Sky Polarization Imaging under Harsh Conditions","volume":"24","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gkanias, E., Risse, B., Mangan, M., and Webb, B. (2019). From Skylight Input to Behavioural Output: A Computational Model of the Insect Polarised Light Compass. PLoS Comput. Biol., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1007123"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4019","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201821004019","article-title":"Performance of Machine Learning Algorithms and Diversity in Data","volume":"Volume 210","author":"Hyontai","year":"2018","journal-title":"MATEC Web of Conferences"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Brownlee, J. (2020). Data Preparation for Machine Learning: Data Cleaning, Feature Selection, and Data Transforms in Python, Machine Learning Mastery."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Goodfellow, I., Bengio, Y., and Courville, A. (2016). Deep Learning, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3199","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.003199","article-title":"Real-Time Polarization Imaging Algorithm for Camera-Based Polarization Navigation Sensors","volume":"56","author":"Lu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2638","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.46.002638","article-title":"Data Analysis for a Rotating Quarter-Wave, Far-Infrared Stokes Polarimeter","volume":"46","author":"Giudicotti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"098002","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2345180","article-title":"Rapid 4-Stokes Parameter Determination Using a Motorized Rotating Retarder","volume":"45","author":"Gerhart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"043101","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.57.4.043101","article-title":"Multicamera Polarized Vision for the Orientation with the Skylight Polarization Patterns","volume":"57","author":"Fan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"75","article-title":"Calibration and Image Processing Method for Polarized Skylight Sensor","volume":"Volume 11550","author":"Dai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Optoelectronic Imaging and Multimedia Technology VII"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5665","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.414718","article-title":"Neutral Point Detection Using the AOP of Polarized Skylight Patterns","volume":"29","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5453","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.45.005453","article-title":"Review of Passive Imaging Polarimetry for Remote Sensing Applications","volume":"45","author":"Tyo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42090","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.443321","article-title":"Skylight Polarization Patterns under Urban Obscurations and a Navigation Method Adapted to Urban Environments","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/6\/1\/162","article-title":"Polarization Singularities in the Clear Sky","volume":"6","author":"Berry","year":"2004","journal-title":"New J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2013.18","article-title":"Adding a Solar-Radiance Function to the Ho\u0161ek-Wilkie Skylight Model","volume":"33","author":"Wilkie","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65601","DOI":"10.1088\/2040-8978\/18\/6\/065601","article-title":"An Analytical Model for the Celestial Distribution of Polarized Light, Accounting for Polarization Singularities, Wavelength and Atmospheric Turbidity","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Opt."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.453177","article-title":"Polarized Light Sun Position Determination Artificial Neural Network","volume":"61","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Liang, H., and Bai, H. (2020). Polarized Skylight Navigation Simulation (PSNS) Dataset. arXiv, arXiv2007.13081."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"164","article-title":"Polarization Imagery","volume":"Volume 112","author":"Walraven","year":"1977","journal-title":"Optical Polarimetry: Instrumentation and Applications"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.36.000723","article-title":"Stokes Vector Imaging of the Polarized Sky-Dome","volume":"36","author":"North","year":"1997","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2006.153","article-title":"A Generic Camera Model and Calibration Method for Conventional Wide-Angle, and Fish-Eye Lenses","volume":"28","author":"Kannala","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/15\/6906\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:25:16Z","timestamp":1760127916000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/15\/6906"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s23156906"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23156906","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]]}}}