{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T23:31:21Z","timestamp":1782862281329,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691712000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Sciences Foundation of China","award":["62275269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275269"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Sciences Foundation of China","award":["2022JCC014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022JCC014"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Sciences Foundation of China","award":["2020GXNSFAA297173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA297173"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Sciences Foundation of China","award":["2020AA24002AA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA24002AA"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Sciences Foundation of China","award":["2020AA21077007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA21077007"]}]},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Foundation of Guangxi University","award":["62275269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275269"]}]},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Foundation of Guangxi University","award":["2022JCC014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022JCC014"]}]},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Foundation of Guangxi University","award":["2020GXNSFAA297173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA297173"]}]},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Foundation of Guangxi University","award":["2020AA24002AA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA24002AA"]}]},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Foundation of Guangxi University","award":["2020AA21077007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA21077007"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi","award":["62275269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275269"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi","award":["2022JCC014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022JCC014"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi","award":["2020GXNSFAA297173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA297173"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi","award":["2020AA24002AA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA24002AA"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi","award":["2020AA21077007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA21077007"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Major Project of Science and Technology","award":["62275269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275269"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Major Project of Science and Technology","award":["2022JCC014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022JCC014"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Major Project of Science and Technology","award":["2020GXNSFAA297173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA297173"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Major Project of Science and Technology","award":["2020AA24002AA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA24002AA"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Major Project of Science and Technology","award":["2020AA21077007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA21077007"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Key Project of Science and Technology","award":["62275269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275269"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Key Project of Science and Technology","award":["2022JCC014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022JCC014"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Key Project of Science and Technology","award":["2020GXNSFAA297173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA297173"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Key Project of Science and Technology","award":["2020AA24002AA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA24002AA"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Key Project of Science and Technology","award":["2020AA21077007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020AA21077007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fiber-optic magnetic field sensors have garnered considerable attention in the field of marine monitoring due to their compact size, robust anti-electromagnetic interference capabilities, corrosion resistance, high sensitivity, ease of multiplexing and integration, and potential for large-scale sensing networks. To enable the detection of marine magnetic field vector information, we propose an optical fiber vector magnetic field sensor that integrates three single-axis sensors in an orthogonal configuration. Theoretical analysis and experimental verification are conducted to investigate its magnetic field and temperature sensing characteristics, and a sensitivity matrix is established to address the cross-sensitivity between the magnetic field and temperature; experimental tests were conducted to assess the vector response of the three-dimensional (3D) vector sensor across the three orthogonal axes; the obtained experimental results illustrate the commendable magnetic field vector response exhibited by the sensor in the orthogonal axes, enabling precise demodulation of vector magnetic field information. This sensor presents several advantages, including cost-effectiveness, easy integration, and reliability vectorially. Consequently, it holds immense potential for critical applications in marine magnetic field network detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23167127","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T12:10:23Z","timestamp":1691755823000},"page":"7127","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Characterization of Fiber-Optic Vector Magnetic Field Sensors Based on the Magneto-Strictive Effect"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Ning","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronic and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"},{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuren","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronic and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chaofan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"},{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Nong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronic and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenjie","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronic and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhencheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronic and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junbo","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sciences, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1125-6637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhenrong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronic and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3924","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2017.2722545","article-title":"Triaxial Fiber Optic Magnetic Field Sensor for Magnetic Resonance Imaging","volume":"35","author":"Filograno","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"73","article-title":"Development of Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (Auv) for Exploring Deep Sea Marine Mineral Resources","volume":"47","author":"Wakita","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mitsubishi Heavy Ind. Tech. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-3584.1998.tb02393.x","article-title":"Superconducting Magnetic Gradiometers for Underwater Target Detection","volume":"110","author":"Clem","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nav. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/08123985.2022.2089013","article-title":"Advanced Magnetic Survey System and Method for Detailed Magnetic Field Mapping near the Sea Bottom Using an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle","volume":"54","author":"Kasaya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Explor. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29492","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.435864","article-title":"Magnetic Field and Temperature Two-Parameter Sensor Based on Optical Microfiber Coupler Interference (Omci) Wrapped with Magnetic Fluid and Pdms","volume":"29","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2023.107498","article-title":"High Sensitivity and Dual Parameters Micro-Tapered-Lpg Sensor","volume":"164","author":"Shao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"High-Sensitivity and Low-Loss Vector Magnetic Field Sensor Based on the C-Type Optical Fiber","volume":"57","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18709","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.018709","article-title":"Fabrication of Europium-Doped Silica Optical Fiber with High Verdet Constant","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2021.3127641","article-title":"A Magnetic Field Sensor Utilizing Tellurite Fiber-Induced Sagnac Loop Based on Faraday Rotation Effect and Fresnel Reflection","volume":"70","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20777","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.17.020777","article-title":"Optical Fiber Magnetic Field Sensors with Tbdyfe Magnetostrictive Thin Films as Sensing Materials","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17386","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.21.017386","article-title":"Magnetic Field Sensor Based on Fiber Bragg Grating with a Spiral Microgroove Ablated by Femtosecond Laser","volume":"21","author":"Dai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2015.11.035","article-title":"Magnetic Actuator Based on Giant Magnetostrictive Material Terfenol-D with Strain and Temperature Monitoring Using Fbg Optical Sensor","volume":"80","author":"Barrera","year":"2016","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32713","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3061248","article-title":"Terfenol-D Based Magnetic Field Sensor with Temperature Independence Incorporating Dual Fiber Bragg Gratings Structure","volume":"9","author":"Zhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050620","article-title":"A Magnetic Field Sensor Based on a Magnetic Fluid-Filled Fp-Fbg Structure","volume":"16","author":"Xia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4008","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2820741","article-title":"Magnetic Field Sensor Based on Magnetic Fluid-Infiltrated Phase-Shifted Fiber Bragg Grating","volume":"18","author":"Bao","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5407","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.005407","article-title":"All-Fiber Optical Magnetic-Field Sensor Based on Faraday Rotation in Highly Terbium-Doped Fiber","volume":"18","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1","article-title":"A New Approach to Measure Magnetic Field of High-Temperature Superconducting Coil Based on Magneto-Optical Faraday Effect","volume":"31","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2021.102634","article-title":"Applications of Magneto-Strictive, Magneto-Optical, Magnetic Fluid Materials in Optical Fiber Current Sensors and Optical Fiber Magnetic Field Sensors: A Review","volume":"65","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27628","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.027628","article-title":"Magnetic Field Sensor Based on a Dual-Frequency Optoelectronic Oscillator Using Cascaded Magnetostrictive Alloy-Fiber Bragg Grating-Fabry Perot and Fiber Bragg Grating-Fabry Perot Filters","volume":"26","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer, C.D., and Stewart, I. (2023). Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra, SIAM.","DOI":"10.1137\/1.9781611977448"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"Modern Magnetic Field Sensors\u2013a Review","volume":"10","author":"Tumanski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Organ"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2675440","article-title":"Magnetic Fluid Based High Precision Temperature Sensor","volume":"17","author":"Pathak","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"666","article-title":"Estimation of Uncertainty in Measurement in Precision Calibration of Dc High Current Source up to 100 A","volume":"64","author":"Jaiswal","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Sci. Ind. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11082-017-1276-0","article-title":"A Refractive Index Sensor Based on a D-Shaped Photonic Crystal Fiber with a Nanoscale Gold Belt","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1088\/0026-1394\/44\/5\/010","article-title":"A Generalization of the Welch\u2013Satterthwaite Formula for Use with Correlated Uncertainty Components","volume":"44","author":"Willink","year":"2007","journal-title":"Metrologia"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4430","DOI":"10.3390\/s100504430","article-title":"Measurement Uncertainty Estimation in Amperometric Sensors: A Tutorial Review","volume":"10","author":"Helm","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"0728003","article-title":"Interferometric Micro-nano Fiber Optic Magnetic Field Sensor Based on Magnetostrictive Rods","volume":"60","author":"Jia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Laser Optoelectron. Prog."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2017.05.001","article-title":"Fiber-Optic Magnetic Field Sensor Using a Phase-Shifted Fiber Bragg Grating Assisted by a Tbdyfe Bar","volume":"261","author":"Shao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, N., Qin, S., Nong, J., Zhang, Z., and Yu, Y. (2022, January 8\u201311). Research on Two-Dimensional Vector Magnetic Field Sensing Characteristics of All-Fiber Magnetic Field Sensor Based on the Magnetostrictive Effect. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 14th International Conference on Advanced Infocomm Technology (ICAIT), Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAIT56197.2022.9862778"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10359","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.440704","article-title":"Fiber-Optic Michelson Magnetic Field Sensor Based on a Mechanical Amplifier Structure","volume":"60","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/16\/7127\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:31:52Z","timestamp":1760128312000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/16\/7127"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s23167127"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23167127","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]}}}