{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T15:55:09Z","timestamp":1772553309535,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,14]],"date-time":"2023-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691971200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Czech Science Foundation under the project","award":["No.\u00a023-04676J"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No.\u00a023-04676J"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper deals with a specific approach to fault detection in transformer systems using the extended Kalman filter (EKF). Specific faults are investigated in power lines where a transformer is connected and only the primary electrical quantities, input voltage, and current are measured. Faults can occur in either the primary or secondary winding of the transformer. Two EKFs are proposed for fault detection. The first EKF estimates the voltage, current, and electrical load resistance of the secondary winding using measurements of the primary winding. The model of the transformer used is known as mutual inductance. For a short circuit in the secondary winding, the observer generates a signal indicating a fault. The second EKF is designed for harmonic detection and estimates the amplitude and frequency of the primary winding voltage. This contribution focuses on mathematical methods useful for galvanic decoupled soft sensing and fault detection. Moreover, the contribution emphasizes how EKF observers play a key role in the context of sensor fusion, which is characterized by merging multiple lines of information in an accurate conceptualization of data and their reconciliation with the measurements. Simulations demonstrate the efficiency of the fault detection using EKF observers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23167173","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,14]],"date-time":"2023-08-14T11:07:10Z","timestamp":1692011230000},"page":"7173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Sensor Fusion for Power Line Sensitive Monitoring and Load State Estimation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6853-1383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Schimmack","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Production Technology and Systems, Leuphana University of Lueneburg, Universit\u00e4tsallee 1, D-21335 Lueneburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1299-7704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kv\u011btoslav","family":"Belda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Information Theory and Automation, Department of Adaptive Systems, Pod Vod\u00e1renskou v\u011b\u017e\u00ed 4, CZ-18200 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3288-5280","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Mercorelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Production Technology and Systems, Leuphana University of Lueneburg, Universit\u00e4tsallee 1, D-21335 Lueneburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schimmack, M., and Mercorelli, P. 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