{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T15:51:14Z","timestamp":1761061874448,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,25]],"date-time":"2023-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692921600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Hessian State Ministry for Higher Education, Research and the Arts (HMWK)"},{"name":"German Research Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Several areas of wireless networking, such as wireless sensor networks or the Internet of Things, require application data to be distributed to multiple receivers in an area beyond the transmission range of a single node. This can be achieved by using the wireless medium\u2019s broadcast property when retransmitting data. Due to the energy constraints of typical wireless devices, a broadcasting scheme that consumes as little energy as possible is highly desirable. In this article, we present a novel multi-hop data dissemination protocol called BTP. It uses a game-theoretical model to construct a spanning tree in a decentralized manner to minimize the total energy consumption of a network by minimizing the transmission power of each node. Although BTP is based on a game-theoretical model, it neither requires information exchange between distant nodes nor time synchronization during its operation, and it inhibits graph cycles effectively. The protocol is evaluated in Matlab and NS-3 simulations and through real-world implementation on a testbed of 75 Raspberry Pis. The evaluation conducted shows that our proposed protocol can achieve a total energy reduction of up to 90% compared to a simple broadcast protocol in real-world experiments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23177419","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,25]],"date-time":"2023-08-25T08:42:20Z","timestamp":1692952940000},"page":"7419","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Energy-Efficient Decentralized Broadcasting in Wireless Multi-Hop Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9820-7373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artur","family":"Sterz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Philipps-Universit\u00e4t Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0702-7180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robin","family":"Klose","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4691-779X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Markus","family":"Sommer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Philipps-Universit\u00e4t Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7326-2250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonas","family":"H\u00f6chst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Philipps-Universit\u00e4t Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1068-6053","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakob","family":"Link","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany"}]},{"given":"Bernd","family":"Simon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering & Information Technology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany"}]},{"given":"Anja","family":"Klein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering & Information Technology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany"}]},{"given":"Matthias","family":"Hollick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7205-8389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernd","family":"Freisleben","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Philipps-Universit\u00e4t Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2637","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2018.2873606","article-title":"Scheduling Policies for Minimizing Age of Information in Broadcast Wireless Networks","volume":"26","author":"Kadota","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Malkhi, D., Reiter, M.K., Rodeh, O., and Sella, Y. (2001, January 28\u201331). Efficient Update Diffusion in Byzantine Environments. Proceedings of the 20th Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems, New Orleans, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/WCN.2005.774","article-title":"A Survey of Application Distribution in Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"2005","author":"Kuorilehto","year":"2005","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2004.10","article-title":"Energy Efficient Broadcast Routing in Static Ad Hoc Wireless Networks","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mousavi, M., Al-Shatri, H., Wichtlhuber, M., Hausheer, D., and Klein, A. (2015, January 25\u201328). Energy-efficient Data Dissemination in Ad Hoc Networks: Mechanism Design with Potential Game. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Wireless Communication Systems, Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISWCS.2015.7454421"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Wattenhofer, R., Li, L., Bahl, P., and Wang, Y.M. (2001, January 22\u201323). Distributed Topology Control for Power Efficient Operation in Multihop Wireless Ad Hoc Networks. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computer Communications, Anchorage, AK, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1020716919751","article-title":"Energy-efficient Broadcast and Multicast Trees In Wireless Networks","volume":"7","author":"Wieselthier","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mob. Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahnavard, N., Vellambi, B.N., and Fekri, F. (2008, January 16\u201320). Distributed Protocols for Finding Low-cost Broadcast and Multicast Trees in Wireless Networks. Proceedings of the 5th Annual Conference on Sensor, Mesh and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAHCN.2008.72"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2019.2928798","article-title":"The Gain of Energy Accumulation in Multi-Hop Wireless Network Broadcast","volume":"27","author":"Khabbazian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2018.01.012","article-title":"Towards Minimum-delay and Energy-efficient Flooding in Low-duty-cycle Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"134","author":"Cheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1858","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2014.2374617","article-title":"Receiver Cooperation in Topology Control for Wireless Ad-hoc Networks","volume":"14","author":"Moon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, R., Yang, W., Wang, Y., and You, K. (2017). DCE: A Distributed Energy-efficient Clustering Protocol For Wireless Sensor Network Based on Double-phase Cluster-head Election. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17050998"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, L., Lu, Y., Xiong, L., Tao, Y., and Zhong, Y. (2017). A Game Theoretic Approach for Balancing Energy Consumption in Clustered Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112654"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Kuehne, A., Le, H.Q., Mousavi, M., Wichtlhuber, M., Hausheer, D., and Klein, A. (2015, January 2\u20135). Power Control in Wireless Broadcast Networks Using Game Theory. Proceedings of the 10th International ITG Conference on Systems, Communications and Coding, Hamburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18041","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3164028","article-title":"A Game-theoretic Approach for Cost-effective Multicast Routing in the Internet of Things","volume":"9","author":"Kumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2019.2944374","article-title":"Cost Sharing Games for Energy-efficient Multi-hop Broadcast in Wireless Networks","volume":"19","author":"Mousavi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, B.S., Suh, B., Seo, I.J., Lee, H.B., Gong, J.S., and Kim, K.I. (2022). An Enhanced Tree Routing Based on Reinforcement Learning in Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23010223"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11404","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3146295","article-title":"An Energy-Efficient Data Aggregation Mechanism for IoT Secured by Blockchain","volume":"10","author":"Ahmed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Access"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1613","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2012.133","article-title":"Game-based Broadcast over Reliable and Unreliable Wireless Links in Wireless Multihop Networks","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"4973","article-title":"Energy-efficient Deployment in Static and Mobile Heterogeneous Multi-hop Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"21","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176495","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3026939","article-title":"Improving Energy Efficiency with Content-based Adaptive Scheduling in Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"8","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Access"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3163","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2021.3055819","article-title":"ECHO: Efficient Zero-control-packet Broadcasting for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks","volume":"21","author":"Dusia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2004.830912","article-title":"Cooperative Multihop Broadcast for Wireless Networks","volume":"22","author":"Maric","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marques, D., Senna, C., and Lu\u00eds, M. (2022). Forwarding in Energy-constrained Wireless Information Centric Networks. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041438"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, P., Xu, Y., and Liu, J. (2017). A Distributed And Energy-efficient Algorithm for Event K-Coverage in Underwater Sensor Networks. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17010186"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2019.2940025","article-title":"Throughput-optimal Broadcast in Wireless Networks with Point-to-multipoint Transmissions","volume":"20","author":"Sinha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2016.04.002","article-title":"Real Experimentation of Probabilistic Broadcasting Algorithms Based on Dissimilarity Metrics for Multi-hop Ad Hoc Networks","volume":"47","author":"Reina","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12260","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2808356","article-title":"A Neighbor-based Probabilistic Broadcast Protocol for Data Dissemination in Mobile IoT Networks","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mager, F., Baumann, D., Trimpe, S., and Zimmerling, M. (2018, January 11\u201313). Toward Fast Closed-loop Control Over Multi-hop Low-power Wireless Networks. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks, Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPSN.2018.00042"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, H., Kim, B.S., Kim, K.H., Shah, B., and Kim, K.I. (2017). A Tree Based Broadcast Scheme For (m, k)-Firm Real-time Stream in Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112578"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tai, K.Y., Liu, B.C., Hsiao, C.H., Tsai, M.C., and Lin, F.Y.S. (2023). A Near-optimal Energy Management Mechanism Considering QoS and Fairness Requirements in Tree Structure Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020763"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clausen, T.H., and Jacquet, P. (2003). Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR), The Internet Society.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc3626"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ntlatlapa, N., and Johnson, C.A.D. (2008, January 6\u20138). Simple pragmatic approach to mesh routing using BATMAN. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Wireless Communications and Information Technology in Developing Countries, Pretoria, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Ibrahim, M.S., Shanmugaraja, P., and Raj, A.A. (2022). Advances in Information Communication Technology and Computing, Springer."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Rango, F., Fotino, M., and Marano, S. (2008, January 16\u201319). EE-OLSR: Energy Efficient OLSR routing protocol for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. Proceedings of the Military Communications Conference, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MILCOM.2008.4753611"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Oda, H., Kulla, E., and Katayama, K. (2018, January 24\u201326). A Modified Energy-aware BATMAN Routing Protocol. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Network-Based Information Systems, Bratislava, Slovakia."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11123","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3051603","article-title":"Supporting IoT with rate-splitting multiple access in satellite and aerial-integrated networks","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3717","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2022.3155711","article-title":"Refracting RIS-aided hybrid satellite-terrestrial relay networks: Joint beamforming design and optimization","volume":"58","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2021.3071836","article-title":"Multi-hop RIS-empowered terahertz communications: A DRL-based hybrid beamforming design","volume":"39","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"2085","article-title":"SLNR-based secure energy efficient beamforming in multibeam satellite systems","volume":"59","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2618870","article-title":"An Overview on Resource Allocation Techniques for Multi-User MIMO Systems","volume":"19","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1006\/game.1996.0044","article-title":"Potential Games","volume":"14","author":"Monderer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Games Econ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"MacKenzie, A.B., and DaSilva, L.A. (2022). Game Theory for Wireless Engineers, Springer Nature."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Mehlhorn, K., and Sanders, P. (2008). Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox, Springer Publishing Company. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Rappaport, T.S. (1996). Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Prentice Hall PTR."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2018.05.015","article-title":"The Nexmon Firmware Analysis and Modification Framework: Empowering Researchers to Enhance Wi-Fi Devices","volume":"129","author":"Schulz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"H\u00f6chst, J., Penning, A., Lampe, P., and Freisleben, B. (November, January 29). PIMOD: A Tool for Configuring Single-board Computer Operating System Images. Proceedings of the Global Humanitarian Technology Conference, Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakeres, I.D., and Belding-Royer, E.M. (2004, January 23\u201324). AODV Routing Protocol Implementation Design. Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDCSW.2004.1284108"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"139","article-title":"DSR: The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol for Multi-Hop Wireless Ad Hoc Networks","volume":"5","author":"Johnson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Klose, R. (2023). Decentralized Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications through Concurrent Cooperative Transmission. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universit\u00e4t Darmstadt]."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/17\/7419\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:38:59Z","timestamp":1760128739000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/17\/7419"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,25]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s23177419"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23177419","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,25]]}}}