{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T08:59:26Z","timestamp":1767085166802,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]],"date-time":"2023-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693440000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","award":["NRF-2022K2A9A2A08000152","FY2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2022K2A9A2A08000152","FY2022"]}]},{"name":"Kyushu Institute of Technology","award":["NRF-2022K2A9A2A08000152","FY2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2022K2A9A2A08000152","FY2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, research on three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction under low illumination environment has been reported. Photon-counting integral imaging is one of the techniques for visualizing 3D images under low light conditions. However, conventional photon-counting integral imaging has the problem that results are random because Poisson random numbers are temporally and spatially independent. Therefore, in this paper, we apply a technique called Kalman filter to photon-counting integral imaging, which corrects data groups with errors, to improve the visual quality of results. The purpose of this paper is to reduce randomness and improve the accuracy of visualization for results by incorporating the Kalman filter into 3D reconstruction images under extremely low light conditions. Since the proposed method has better structure similarity (SSIM), peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and cross-correlation values than the conventional method, it can be said that the visualization of low illuminated images can be accurate. In addition, the proposed method is expected to accelerate the development of autonomous driving technology and security camera technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23177571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]],"date-time":"2023-08-31T11:45:51Z","timestamp":1693482351000},"page":"7571","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Three-Dimensional (3D) Visualization under Extremely Low Light Conditions Using Kalman Filter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1381-6116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyun-Woo","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Networks, Kyushu Institute of Technology, 680-4 Kawazu, Iizuka-shi, Fukuoka 820-8502, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2896-770X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Myungjin","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of ICT, Robotics, and Mechanical Engineering, Hankyong National University, IITC, 327 Chungang-ro, Anseong 17579, Kyonggi-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8469-0288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Min-Chul","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Networks, Kyushu Institute of Technology, 680-4 Kawazu, Iizuka-shi, Fukuoka 820-8502, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20661","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.020661","article-title":"Adaptive viewing distance in super multi-view displays using aperiodic 3-D pixel location and dynamic view indices","volume":"26","author":"Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. 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