{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T15:04:22Z","timestamp":1779203062799,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]],"date-time":"2023-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693872000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Technical and Vocational Training Corporation (TVTC) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"School of Engineering at the University of Dayton"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We describe a study on the effect of temperature variations on multi-channel time-to-digital converters (TDCs). The objective is to study the impact of ambient thermal variations on the performance of field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based tapped delay line (TDL) TDC systems while simultaneously meeting the requirements of high-precision time measurement, low-cost implementation, small size, and low power consumption. For our study, we chose two devices, Artix-7 and ProASIC3L, manufactured by Xilinx and Microsemi, respectively. The radiation-tolerant ProASIC3L device offers better stability in terms of thermal sensitivity and power consumption compared to the Artix-7. To assess the performance of the TDCs under varying thermal conditions, a laboratory thermal chamber was utilized to maintain ambient temperatures ranging from \u221275 to 80 \u00b0C. This analysis ensured a comprehensive evaluation of the TDCs\u2019 performance across a wide operational range. By utilizing the Artix-7 and ProASIC3L devices, we achieved root mean square (RMS) resolution of 24.7 and 554.59 picoseconds, respectively. Total on-chip power of 0.968 W was achieved using Artix-7, while 1.997 mW of power consumption was achieved using the ProASIC3L device. We worked to determine the temperature sensitivity for both FPGA devices, which could help in the design and optimization of FPGA-based TDCs for many applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23187672","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]],"date-time":"2023-09-05T10:26:43Z","timestamp":1693909603000},"page":"7672","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A Study on the Effect of Temperature Variations on FPGA-Based Multi-Channel Time-to-Digital Converters"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0867-7791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Awwad H.","family":"Alshehry","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2577-2834","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saleh M.","family":"Alshahry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2781-7037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah K.","family":"Alhazmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9707-2964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vamsy P.","family":"Chodavarapu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JE002808","article-title":"Context Camera Investigation on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter","volume":"112","author":"Malin","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. 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