{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T11:24:08Z","timestamp":1780572248386,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"SMARTSAT CRC","award":["3-13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3-13"]}]},{"name":"SMARTSAT CRC","award":["DE190101182"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE190101182"]}]},{"name":"Geoscience Australia and CSIRO collaborative Inland Water Quality Project 2017\u20132020","award":["3-13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3-13"]}]},{"name":"Geoscience Australia and CSIRO collaborative Inland Water Quality Project 2017\u20132020","award":["DE190101182"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE190101182"]}]},{"name":"Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship","award":["3-13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3-13"]}]},{"name":"Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship","award":["DE190101182"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE190101182"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study introduces a prototype end-to-end Simulator software tool for simulating two-dimensional satellite multispectral imagery for a variety of satellite instrument models in aquatic environments. Using case studies, the impact of variable sensor configurations on the performance of value-added products for challenging applications, such as coral reefs and cyanobacterial algal blooms, is assessed. This demonstrates how decisions regarding satellite sensor design, driven by cost constraints, directly influence the quality of value-added remote sensing products. Furthermore, the Simulator is used to identify situations where retrieval algorithms require further parameterization before application to unsimulated satellite data, where error sources cannot always be identified or isolated. The application of the Simulator can verify whether a given instrument design meets the performance requirements of end-users before build and launch, critically allowing for the justification of the cost and specifications for planned and future sensors. It is hoped that the Simulator will enable engineers and scientists to understand important design trade-offs in phase 0\/A studies easily, quickly, reliably, and accurately in future Earth observation satellites and systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23187824","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T21:41:12Z","timestamp":1694554872000},"page":"7824","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Demonstration of a Modular Prototype End-to-End Simulator for Aquatic Remote Sensing Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2252-8028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark W.","family":"Matthews","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CyanoLakes (Pty) Ltd., Sydney, NSW 2126, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8160-6498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arnold","family":"Dekker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Satdek (Pty) Ltd., Sutton, NSW 2620, Australia"},{"name":"CSIRO Space and Astronomy, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian","family":"Price","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, College of Science, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1248-0593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nathan","family":"Drayson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Environment, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1450-9962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joshua","family":"Pease","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Manufacturing, Melbourne, VIC 3216, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Antoine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Remote Sensing and Satellite Research Group, School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1681-9630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janet","family":"Anstee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Environment, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Sharp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, College of Science, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Woodgate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Campus, St Lucia, QLD 4067, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2605-6104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart","family":"Phinn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Campus, St Lucia, QLD 4067, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6810-5824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen","family":"Gensemer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO Manufacturing, Melbourne, VIC 3216, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"SmartSat (2021). Preliminary Concept Study for the Satellite Segment of AquaWatch Australia, SmartSat. SmartSat Aquawatch Technical Report no. 1."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Dekker, A.G., and Pinnel, N. (2018). Feasibility Study for an Aquatic Ecosystem Earth Observing System, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1109\/36.35965","article-title":"Simulation of optical remote sensing systems","volume":"27","author":"Kerekes","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4794","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2759240","article-title":"Overview of Passive Optical Multispectral and Hyperspectral Image Simulation Techniques","volume":"10","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295950","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/295950","article-title":"End-to-End Image Simulator for Optical Imaging Systems: Equations and Simulation Examples","volume":"2013","author":"Coppo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00143-3","article-title":"Simulation of hyperspectral and directional radiance images using coupled biophysical and atmospheric radiative transfer models","volume":"87","author":"Verhoef","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22956","DOI":"10.3390\/s150922956","article-title":"Evaluating sentinel-2 for lakeshore habitat mapping based on airborne hyperspectral data","volume":"15","author":"Stratoulias","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2012.2188994","article-title":"EeteS\u2014The EnMAP end-to-end simulation tool","volume":"5","author":"Segl","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4215","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2538300","article-title":"FLEX end-to-end mission performance simulator","volume":"54","author":"Vicent","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-15-573-2022","article-title":"The FORUM end-to-end simulator project: Architecture and results","volume":"15","author":"Sgheri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2011616","article-title":"Simulation of Optical Remote-Sensing Scenes With Application to the EnMAP Hyperspectral Mission","volume":"47","author":"Guanter","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.10.034","article-title":"Simulation of Sentinel-3 images by four-stream surface\u2013atmosphere radiative transfer modeling in the optical and thermal domains","volume":"120","author":"Verhoef","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1117\/12.945683","article-title":"Ocean color remote sensing systems: Radiometric requirements","volume":"Volume 924","author":"Gordon","year":"1988","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE 0924, Recent Advances in Sensors, Radiometry, and Data Processing for Remote Sensing"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7390","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.007390","article-title":"Sensor performance requirements for atmospheric correction of satellite ocean color remote sensing","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ocean color hyperspectral remote sensing with high resolution and low latency\u2014The HYPSO-1 CubeSat mission","volume":"60","author":"Birkeland","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Transact. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rana, H., Brewin, R., Marais, E., Hey, J.V., Ghent, D., and Bird, R. (2022). A Passive Small Satellite Mission for Monitoring Ocean Health. IEEE Intl. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp., 7351\u20137354.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS46834.2022.9883270"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"309","article-title":"SeaHawk: An advanced CubeSat mission for sustained ocean colour monitoring","volume":"Volume 100001C","author":"Morrison","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE 10000, Sensors, Systems, and Next-Generation Satellites XX"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matthews, M.W., Kravitz, J.A., Pease, J., and Gensemer, S. (2023). Determining the spectral requirements for cyanobacteria detection for the CyanoSat hyperspectral imager with machine learning. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23187800"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.11.026","article-title":"Sentinel-2: ESA\u2019s optical high-resolution mission for GMES operational services","volume":"120","author":"Drusch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"427","article-title":"Status of the optical payload and processor development of ESA\u2019s Sentinel 3 mission","volume":"IV","author":"Nieke","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1071\/MF9900581","article-title":"Optical properties, of waters in the Murray-Darling Basin, South-eastern Australia","volume":"41","author":"Oliver","year":"1990","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2022.108489","article-title":"Australian aquatic bio-optical dataset with applications for satellite calibration, algorithm development and validation","volume":"44","author":"Drayson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Data Br."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Anstee, J., Botha, H., Cherukuru, N., Clementson, L., Oubelkheir, K., Schroeder, T., Blondeau-Patissier, D., Ford, P., Brando, V., and Dekker, A.G. (2020). Coastal Water Quality Laboratory and In Situ Measurements of SIOPs (Activity 2.1) and Substratum (Activity 2.2). v1, CSIRO."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27829","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.23.027829","article-title":"OSOAA: A vector radiative transfer model of coupled atmosphere-ocean system for a rough sea surface application to the estimates of the directional variations of the water leaving reflectance to better process multi-angular satellite sensors data over the ocean","volume":"23","author":"Chami","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Exp."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Shettle, E.P., and Fenn, R.W. (1979). Models for the Aerosols of the Lower Atmosphere and the Effects of Humidity Variations on Their Optical Properties (No. 676), Optical Physics Division, Air Force Geophysics Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3161","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-15-3161-2022","article-title":"GSTools v1.3: A toolbox for geostatistical modelling in Python","volume":"15","author":"Zech","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.12.003","article-title":"A physics based retrieval and quality assessment of bathymetry from suboptimal hyperspectral data","volume":"113","author":"Brando","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.51.002808","article-title":"Adaptive semi-analytical inversion of ocean color radiometry in optically complex waters","volume":"51","author":"Brando","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7404","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.007404","article-title":"Performance metrics for the assessment of satellite data products: An ocean color case study","volume":"26","author":"Seegers","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Exp."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.11.036","article-title":"LESS: LargE-Scale remote sensing data and image simulation framework over heterogeneous 3D scenes","volume":"221","author":"Qi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19400","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3199699","article-title":"Validation of Physics-Based Image Systems Simulation With 3-D Scenes","volume":"22","author":"Lyu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Auer, S., Bamler, R., and Reinartz, P. (2016). RaySAR-3D SAR simulator: Now open source. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp., 6730\u20136733.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2016.7730757"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111981","article-title":"Distinguishing cyanobacteria from algae in optically complex inland waters using a hyperspectral radiative transfer inversion algorithm","volume":"248","author":"Matthews","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/18\/7824\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:49:25Z","timestamp":1760129365000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/18\/7824"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s23187824"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23187824","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]]}}}