{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T16:53:40Z","timestamp":1782406420094,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"EMPIR programme","award":["19NRM05 IT4PQ"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19NRM05 IT4PQ"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Instrument transformers (ITs) play a key role in electrical power systems, facilitating the accurate monitoring and measurement of electrical quantities. They are essential for measurement, protection, and metering in transmission and distribution grids and accurately reducing the grid voltage and current for low-voltage input instrumentation. With the increase in renewable energy sources, electronic converters, and electric vehicles connected to power grids, ITs now face challenging distorted conditions that differ from the nominal ones. The study presented in this paper is a collaborative work between national metrology institutes and universities that analyzes IT performance in measuring distorted voltages and currents in medium-voltage grids under realistic conditions. Both current and voltage measuring transformers are examined, considering influence quantities like the temperature, mechanical vibration, burden, adjacent phases, and proximity effects. The study provides detailed insights into measurement setups and procedures, and it quantifies potential errors arising from IT behavior in measuring distorted signals in the presence of the various considered influence quantities and their combinations. The main findings reveal that the temperature has the most evident impact on the inductive voltage transformer performance, as well as the burden, causing significant changes in ratio error and phase displacement at the lower temperatures. As for low-power ITs, establishing a priori the effects of adjacent phases and proximity on the frequency responses of low-power ITs is a complex matter, because of their different characteristics and construction solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23187833","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T21:41:12Z","timestamp":1694554872000},"page":"7833","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Characterization of Instrument Transformers under Realistic Conditions: Impact of Single and Combined Influence Quantities on Their Wideband Behavior"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Palma Sara","family":"Letizia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica (INRIM), Strada delle Cacce 91, 10135 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriella","family":"Crotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica (INRIM), Strada delle Cacce 91, 10135 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1739-1277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Mingotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, Guglielmo Marconi, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5377-2421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Tinarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, Guglielmo Marconi, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5387-0371","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yeying","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department 2.3-Electrical Energy Measuring Techniques, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Bundesallee 100, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5098-9396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrico","family":"Mohns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department 2.3-Electrical Energy Measuring Techniques, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Bundesallee 100, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9101-0671","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Agazar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire National de M\u00e9trologie et d\u2019Essais (LNE), 1 Rue Gaston Boissier, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2825-1317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Istrate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire National de M\u00e9trologie et d\u2019Essais (LNE), 1 Rue Gaston Boissier, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7218-4609","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Burak","family":"Ayhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Power and Energy Laboratory, T\u00dcB\u0130TAK National Metrology Institute, 41470 Gebze, Kocaeli, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H\u00fcseyin","family":"\u00c7ayci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Power and Energy Laboratory, T\u00dcB\u0130TAK National Metrology Institute, 41470 Gebze, Kocaeli, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9052-3838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Stiegler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrical Power Systems and High Voltage Engineering, TUD Dresden University of Technology, 01062 Dresden, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2023, September 06). 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