{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T18:57:22Z","timestamp":1777143442153,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,26]],"date-time":"2023-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695686400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","award":["101016985"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101016985"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","award":["1S35422N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1S35422N"]}]},{"name":"FWO Vlaanderen","award":["101016985"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101016985"]}]},{"name":"FWO Vlaanderen","award":["1S35422N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1S35422N"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the research field of robotic spine surgery, there is a big upcoming momentum for surgeon-like autonomous behaviour and surgical accuracy in robotics which goes beyond the standard engineering notions such as geometric precision. The objective of this review is to present an overview of the state of the art in non-visual, non-radiative spine sensing for the enhancement of surgical techniques in robotic automation. It provides a vantage point that facilitates experimentation and guides new research projects to what has not been investigated or integrated in surgical robotics. Studies were identified, selected and processed according to the PRISMA guidelines. Relevant study characteristics that were searched for include the sensor type and measured feature, the surgical action, the tested sample, the method for data analysis and the system\u2019s accuracy of state identification. The 6DOF f\/t sensor, the microphone and the electromyography probe were the most commonly used sensors in each category, respectively. The performance of the electromyography probe is unsatisfactory in terms of preventing nerve damage as it can only signal after the nerve is disturbed. Feature thresholding and artificial neural networks were the most common decision algorithms for state identification. The fusion of different sensor data in the decision algorithm improved the accuracy of state identification.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23198094","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,27]],"date-time":"2023-09-27T03:49:14Z","timestamp":1695786554000},"page":"8094","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["State-of-the-Art of Non-Radiative, Non-Visual Spine Sensing with a Focus on Sensing Forces, Vibrations and Bioelectrical Properties: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Maikel","family":"Timmermans","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, BioMechanics (BMe), Smart Instrumentation, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6203-1270","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aidana","family":"Massalimova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research in Orthopedic Computer Science (ROCS), University Hospital Balgrist, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2882-8398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruixuan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Robot-Assisted Surgery Group (RAS), 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Ayoob","family":"Davoodi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Robot-Assisted Surgery Group (RAS), 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Quentin","family":"Goossens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, BioMechanics (BMe), Smart Instrumentation, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5498-4311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenan","family":"Niu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Robot-Assisted Surgery Group (RAS), 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Vander Poorten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Robot-Assisted Surgery Group (RAS), 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Philipp","family":"F\u00fcrnstahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research in Orthopedic Computer Science (ROCS), University Hospital Balgrist, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6492-9607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kathleen","family":"Denis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, BioMechanics (BMe), Smart Instrumentation, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s12306-016-0438-8","article-title":"Pedicle screw insertion techniques: An update and review of the literature","volume":"100","author":"Perna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Musculoskelet. Surg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsai, T.T., Lee, S.H., Niu, C.C., Lai, P.L., Chen, L.H., and Chen, W.J. (2016). Unplanned revision spinal surgery within a week: A retrospective analysis of surgical causes. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-016-0891-4"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.14444\/8349","article-title":"Revision spinal surgery at a University Hospital: Incidence, causes, and microbiological agents in infected patients","volume":"16","author":"Westin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Spine Surg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spinee.2019.12.013","article-title":"Classification of perioperative complications in spine surgery","volume":"20","author":"Farshad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Spine J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S91","DOI":"10.21037\/jss.2019.04.13","article-title":"The use of minimally invasive surgery in spine trauma: A review of concepts","volume":"5","author":"Camacho","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Spine Surg."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1738","DOI":"10.1007\/s11999-014-3503-3","article-title":"Does less invasive spine surgery result in increased radiation exposure? A systematic review","volume":"472","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2018.08.158","article-title":"Practical assessment of radiation exposure in spine surgery","volume":"120","author":"Urakov","year":"2018","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.5312\/wjo.v8.i7.524","article-title":"Radiation exposure and reduction in the operating room: Perspectives and future directions in spine surgery","volume":"8","author":"Narain","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.21037\/jss-21-95","article-title":"Intra-operative wearable visualization in spine surgery: Past, present, and future","volume":"8","author":"Ahmad","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Spine Surg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1007\/s11684-020-0816-3","article-title":"Advances in tissue state recognition in spinal surgery: A review","volume":"15","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952539","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2022.952539","article-title":"Intraoperative tissue classification methods in orthopedic and neurological surgeries: A systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Massalimova","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Surg."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semss.2021.100876","article-title":"Deep learning in spine surgery","volume":"33","author":"Ghaednia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin. Spine Surg."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2020.00054","article-title":"The role of machine learning in spine surgery: The future is now","volume":"7","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Surg."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S31","DOI":"10.21037\/jss.2019.04.16","article-title":"The use of robotics in minimally invasive spine surgery","volume":"5","author":"Staub","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Spine Surg."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000002695","article-title":"The arrival of robotics in spine surgery: A review of the literature","volume":"43","author":"Ghasem","year":"2018","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.2147\/RSRR.S190720","article-title":"Robotic-assisted spine surgery: History, efficacy, cost, and future trends","volume":"6","author":"Gendreau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Robot. Surg. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-021-01626-4","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"10","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, H., Hu, Y., Gao, P., Zhang, P., Zheng, T., and Zhang, J. (2014, January 28\u201329). Intraoperative control for robotic spinal surgical system with audio and torque sensing. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Multisensor Fusion and Information Integration for Intelligent Systems (MFI), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/MFI.2014.6997711"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Qi, X., Guan, F., Jin, H., Hu, Y., and Tian, W. (2021, January 15\u201319). State Sensing of Spinal Surgical Robot Based on Fusion of Sound and Force Signals. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Real-Time Computing and Robotics (RCAR), Xining, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/RCAR52367.2021.9517529"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2019.101763","article-title":"State recognition of decompressive laminectomy with multiple information in robot-assisted surgery","volume":"102","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hessinger, M., Hielscher, J., Pott, P.P., and Werthsch\u00fctzky, R. (2013, January 21\u201323). Handheld surgical drill with integrated thrust force recognition. Proceedings of the 2013 E-Health and Bioengineering Conference (EHB), Iasi, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/EHB.2013.6707303"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2012.2237179","article-title":"State recognition of pedicle drilling with force sensing in a robotic spinal surgical system","volume":"19","author":"Hu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Z., Sun, Y., Zhao, S., Hu, Y., and Zhang, J. (2017, January 24\u201328). A model of vertebral motion and key point recognition of drilling with force in robot-assisted spinal surgery. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2017.8206552"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1109\/TMRB.2020.3000299","article-title":"Model-based compensation of moving tissue for state recognition in robotic-assisted pedicle drilling","volume":"2","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med Robot. Bionics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, H., Hu, Y., Luo, H., Zheng, T., and Zhang, P. (2012, January 13\u201315). Intraoperative state recognition of a bone-drilling system with image-force fusion. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Multisensor Fusion and Integration for Intelligent Systems (MFI), Hamburg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/MFI.2012.6343079"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2020.102342","article-title":"Localization of drilling tool position through bone tissue identification during surgical drilling","volume":"67","author":"Rossini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, W., Han, X., Liu, B., Liu, Y., Hu, Y., Han, X., Xu, Y., Fan, M., and Jin, H. (2014). A robot-assisted surgical system using a force-image control method for pedicle screw insertion. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086346"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2018.12.035","article-title":"Peroperative estimation of bone quality and primary dental implant stability","volume":"92","author":"Voumard","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2019.2920133","article-title":"Cutting depth monitoring based on milling force for robot-assisted laminectomy","volume":"17","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52101","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3069549","article-title":"Force Perception and Bone Recognition of Vertebral Lamina Milling by Robot-Assisted Ultrasonic Bone Scalpel Based on Backpropagation Neural Network","volume":"9","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1002\/rcs.304","article-title":"Force-based control of a compact spinal milling robot","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Med Robot. Comput. Assist. Surg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spinee.2013.06.067","article-title":"DensiProbe Spine: An intraoperative measurement of bone quality in spinal instrumentation. A clinical feasibility study","volume":"13","author":"Popp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Spine J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2382","DOI":"10.1111\/os.13168","article-title":"Motor Bur Milling State Identification via Fast Fourier Transform Analyzing Sound Signal in Cervical Spine Posterior Decompression Surgery","volume":"13","author":"Bai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Orthop. Surg."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Dai, Y., Xue, Y., and Zhang, J. (2015, January 6\u20139). State identification based on sound analysis during surgical milling process. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), Zhuhai, China."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, Y., Xue, Y., and Zhang, J. (2015, January 26\u201330). Tissue discrimination based on vibratory sense in robot-assisted spine surgery. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2015.7139854"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3028","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2015.2414177","article-title":"Vibration-based milling condition monitoring in robot-assisted spine surgery","volume":"20","author":"Dai","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6184","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2016.2574981","article-title":"Milling state identification based on vibration sense of a robotic surgical system","volume":"63","author":"Dai","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, Y., Xue, Y., Zhang, J., and Li, J. (June, January 29). Biologically-inspired auditory perception during robotic bone milling. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2017.7989132"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2018.2804950","article-title":"Bioinspired integration of auditory and haptic perception in bone milling surgery","volume":"23","author":"Dai","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2020.3029043","article-title":"Human-inspired haptic perception and control in robot-assisted milling surgery","volume":"14","author":"Dai","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Haptics"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1532","article-title":"Noncontact vibration measurement based thoracic spine condition monitoring during pedicle drilling","volume":"19","author":"Dai","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"Real-time acoustic sensing and artificial intelligence for error prevention in orthopedic surgery","volume":"11","author":"Seibold","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"6574","article-title":"Drilling condition identification based on sound pressure signal in anterior cervical discectomy surgery","volume":"25","author":"Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med Sci. Monit. Int. Med J. Exp. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torun, Y., \u00d6zt\u00fcrk, A., Hat\u0130po\u011elu, N., and \u00d6ztem\u00fcr, Z. (2018, January 18\u201319). Breakthrough detection for orthopedic bone drilling via power spectral density estimation of acoustic emission. Proceedings of the 2018 Electric Electronics, Computer Science, Biomedical Engineerings\u2019 Meeting (EBBT), Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/EBBT.2018.8391464"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, F., Sun, Y., Qi, X., Hu, Y., Yu, G., and Zhang, J. (2018). State recognition of bone drilling based on acoustic emission in pedicle screw operation. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051484"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3018","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2015.2410287","article-title":"Hand-held bone cutting tool with autonomous penetration detection for spinal surgery","volume":"20","author":"Osa","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1177\/0954411916689112","article-title":"Feasibility of detecting orthopaedic screw overtightening using acoustic emission","volume":"231","author":"Pullin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H J. Eng. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wright, B., Grigg, S., Bergsaker, A., Brattgjerd, J., Steen, H., and Pullin, R. (2020). Real time monitoring of screw insertion using acoustic emission can predict screw stripping in human cancellous bone. Clin. Biomech., 76.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2020.105026"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2014.08.023","article-title":"A methodology to condition distorted acoustic emission signals to identify fracture timing from human cadaver spine impact tests","volume":"40","author":"Arun","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2008.10.023","article-title":"Structural health monitoring to detect the presence, location and magnitude of structural damage in cadaveric porcine spines","volume":"42","author":"Kawchuk","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"6626232","article-title":"Simulation and analysis with wavelet transform technique and the vibration characteristics for early revealing of cracks in structures","volume":"2021","author":"Daqrouq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-007-0409-8","article-title":"Electrical conductivity measurement: A new technique to detect iatrogenic initial pedicle perforation","volume":"16","author":"Bolger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e3182666adc","article-title":"Reduction in radiation (fluoroscopy) while maintaining safe placement of pedicle screws during lumbar spine fusion","volume":"37","author":"Chaput","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1097\/BPO.0b013e3181b768c3","article-title":"Technique for drilling instrument monitoring electrical conductivity in pediatric cervical spine screw insertion: A preliminary report","volume":"29","author":"Zeller","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E378","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e31817343c1","article-title":"Pulse-train stimulation for detecting medial malpositioning of thoracic pedicle screws","volume":"33","author":"Donohue","year":"2008","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-010-1653-x","article-title":"Triggered electromyography for placement of thoracic pedicle screws: Is it reliable?","volume":"20","author":"Samdani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E387","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e31823b077b","article-title":"Safe pedicle screw placement in thoracic scoliotic curves using t-EMG: Stimulation threshold variability at concavity and convexity in apex segments","volume":"37","author":"Barrios","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spinee.2011.09.006","article-title":"Electromyographic thresholds after thoracic screw stimulation depend on the distance of the screw from the spinal cord and not on pedicle cortex integrity","volume":"12","author":"Montes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spine J."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E194","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e3181696094","article-title":"Using triggered electromyographic threshold in the intercostal muscles to evaluate the accuracy of upper thoracic pedicle screw placement (T3\u2013T6)","volume":"33","author":"Zimick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13018-019-1380-x","article-title":"Tissue discrimination by bioelectrical impedance during PLL resection in anterior decompression surgery for treatment of cervical spondylotic myelopathy","volume":"14","author":"Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2008.11.030","article-title":"Electromyography detects mechanically-induced suprasegmental spinal motor tract injury: Review of decompression at spinal cord level","volume":"120","author":"Skinner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2186","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-007-0485-9","article-title":"Are the spines of calf, pig and sheep suitable models for pre-clinical implant tests?","volume":"16","author":"Kettler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8094\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:58:53Z","timestamp":1760129933000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8094"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,26]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s23198094"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23198094","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,26]]}}}