{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T16:19:41Z","timestamp":1778948381426,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]],"date-time":"2023-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695945600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) Division of Civil, Mechanical and Manufacturing Innovation","award":["1463493"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1463493"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Structural displacement monitoring is one of the major tasks of structural health monitoring and it is a significant challenge for research and engineering practices relating to large-scale civil structures. While computer vision-based structural monitoring has gained traction, current practices largely focus on laboratory experiments, small-scale structures, or close-range applications. This paper demonstrates its applications on three landmark long-span suspension bridges in Turkey: the First Bosphorus Bridge, the Second Bosphorus Bridge, and the Osman Gazi Bridge, among the longest landmark bridges in the world, with main spans of 1074 m, 1090 m, and 1550 m, respectively. The presented studies achieved non-contact displacement monitoring from a distance of 600 m, 755 m, and 1350 m for the respective bridges. The presented concepts, analysis, and results provide an overview of long-span bridge monitoring using computer vision-based monitoring. The results are assessed with conventional monitoring approaches and finite element analysis based on observed traffic conditions. Both displacements and dynamic frequencies align well with these conventional techniques and finite element analyses. This study also highlights the challenges of computer vision-based structural monitoring of long-span bridges and presents considerations such as the encountered adverse environmental factors, target and algorithm selection, and potential directions of future studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23198161","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]],"date-time":"2023-09-29T07:42:08Z","timestamp":1695973328000},"page":"8161","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Applications of Computer Vision-Based Structural Monitoring on Long-Span Bridges in Turkey"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6010-2859","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chuanzhi","family":"Dong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0462-0509","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Selcuk","family":"Bas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA"},{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Bartin University, Bartin 74110, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9255-9976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fikret Necati","family":"Catbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2879","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2879","article-title":"A web-based and design-oriented structural health evaluation system for long-span bridges with structural health monitoring system","volume":"29","author":"Fang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2008.01.013","article-title":"Structural health monitoring and reliability estimation: Long span truss bridge application with environmental monitoring data","volume":"30","author":"Catbas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2017.1360365","article-title":"Structural health monitoring system of the long-span bridges in Turkey","volume":"14","author":"Bas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-022-00551-x","article-title":"Structural health monitoring systems of long-span bridges in Turkey and lessons learned from experienced extreme events","volume":"12","author":"Apaydin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2012.07.018","article-title":"Experimental assessment of high-rate GPS receivers for deformation monitoring of bridge","volume":"46","author":"Yi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicoletti, V., Martini, R., Carbonari, S., and Gara, F. (2023). Operational Modal Analysis as a Support for the Development of Digital Twin Models of Bridges. Infrastructures, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures8020024"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Innocenzi, R.D., Nicoletti, V., Arezzo, D., Carbonari, S., Gara, F., and Dezi, L. (2022). A Good Practice for the Proof Testing of Cable-Stayed Bridges. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12073547"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s11803-010-9024-5","article-title":"Structural condition assessment of long-span suspension bridges using long-term monitoring data","volume":"9","author":"Deng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1007\/s11803-020-0576-8","article-title":"Application of wavelet transform in structural health monitoring","volume":"19","author":"Kankanamge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2017.06.018","article-title":"Long-span bridges: Enhanced data fusion of GPS displacement and deck accelerations","volume":"147","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921720935585","article-title":"A review of computer vision\u2013based structural health monitoring at local and global levels","volume":"20","author":"Dong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"070901","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.61.7.070901","article-title":"Measurement method and recent progress of vision-based deflection measurement of bridges: A technical review","volume":"61","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2155","article-title":"A non-contact vision-based system for multipoint displacement monitoring in a cable-stayed footbridge","volume":"25","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2017.11.018","article-title":"Computer vision for SHM of civil infrastructure: From dynamic response measurement to damage detection\u2014A review","volume":"156","author":"Feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eng.2018.11.030","article-title":"Advances in computer vision-based civil infrastructure inspection and monitoring","volume":"5","author":"Spencer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3025","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.3025","article-title":"Vision-based displacement measurement using an unmanned aerial vehicle","volume":"29","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921720939522","article-title":"Efficient development of vision-based dense three-dimensional displacement measurement algorithms using physics-based graphics models","volume":"20","author":"Narazaki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12353","article-title":"Vision-based fatigue crack detection of steel structures using video feature tracking","volume":"33","author":"Kong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2021.113040","article-title":"Computer vision based target-free 3D vibration displacement measurement of structures","volume":"246","author":"Shao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2021.107869","article-title":"Non-contact structural displacement measurement using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and video-based systems","volume":"160","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113970","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2022.113970","article-title":"Bayesian inference of dense structural response using vision-based measurements","volume":"256","author":"Gomez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2761","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2761","article-title":"Displacement measurement and nonlinear structural system identification: A vision-based approach with camera motion correction using planar structures","volume":"28","author":"Jiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-021-00473-0","article-title":"A multiple camera position approach for accurate displacement measurement using computer vision","volume":"11","author":"Kromanis","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2022.108951","article-title":"A novel gradient-based matching via voting technique for vision-based structural displacement measurement","volume":"171","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8843857","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/8843857","article-title":"Cost-Effective and Ultraportable Smartphone-Based Vision System for Structural Deflection Monitoring","volume":"2021","author":"Tian","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-020-00431-2","article-title":"A portable monitoring approach using cameras and computer vision for bridge load rating in smart cities","volume":"10","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2832","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2832","article-title":"Vision-based displacement and joint rotation tracking of frame structure using feature mix with single consumer-grade camera","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921718806895","article-title":"Marker free monitoring of the grandstand structures and modal identification using computer vision methods","volume":"18","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2713","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2713","article-title":"Computer vision-based real-time cable tension estimation in Dubrovnik cable-stayed bridge using moving handheld video camera","volume":"28","author":"Jana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.106888","article-title":"A robust line-tracking photogrammetry method for uplift measurements of railway catenary systems in noisy backgrounds","volume":"144","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3389\/fbuil.2017.00023","article-title":"Vision-based bridge deformation monitoring","volume":"3","author":"Brownjohn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12415","article-title":"Edge-Enhanced Matching for Gradient-Based Computer Vision Displacement Measurement","volume":"33","author":"Luo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2016.11.021","article-title":"Experimental validation of cost-effective vision-based structural health monitoring","volume":"88","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/12\/5\/016","article-title":"A vision-based approach for the direct measurement of displacements in vibrating systems","volume":"12","author":"Wahbeh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dynamic performance verification of the R\u0119dzi\u0144ski Bridge using portable camera-based vibration monitoring systems","volume":"23","author":"Bocian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-017-0261-4","article-title":"Review of machine-vision based methodologies for displacement measurement in civil structures","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1002\/eqe.3314","article-title":"Hanger replacement influence on seismic response of suspension bridges: Implementation to the Bosphorus Bridge subjected to multi-support excitation","volume":"49","author":"Bas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2023, September 25). Visual Crossing Corporation Historical Weather Data for Kaffrine. Available online: https:\/\/www.visualcrossing.com\/weather-history\/41.133,29.067\/metric\/2018-09-15\/2018-09-15."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2017.09.275","article-title":"System identification of Bogazici suspension bridge during hanger replacement","volume":"199","author":"Soyoz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Brownjohn, J.M.W., Dumanoglu, A.A., and Severn, R.T. (1992, January 19\u201324). Full-Scale Dynamic Testing of the 2nd Bosporus Suspension Bridge. Proceedings of the 10th World Conference Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Spain."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8161\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:01:32Z","timestamp":1760130092000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8161"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s23198161"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23198161","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]]}}}