{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T23:05:41Z","timestamp":1785452741102,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":14,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]],"date-time":"2023-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696464000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"U.S. Department of Energy, Building Technologies Office","award":["DE-AC05-76RL01830"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE-AC05-76RL01830"]}]},{"name":"U.S. Department of Energy, Building Technologies Office","award":["DE-AC02-05CH11231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE-AC02-05CH11231"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Evaluations of nonintrusive load monitoring (NILM) algorithms and technologies have mostly occurred in constrained, artificial environments. However, few field evaluations of NILM products have taken place in actual buildings under normal operating conditions. This paper describes a field evaluation of a state-of-the-art NILM product, tested in eight homes. The match rate metric\u2014a technique recommended by a technical advisory group\u2014was used to measure the NILM\u2019s success in identifying specific loads and the accuracy of the energy consumption estimates. A performance assessment protocol was also developed to address common issues with NILM mislabeling and ground-truth comparisons that have not been sufficiently addressed in past evaluations. The NILM product\u2019s estimates were compared to the submetered consumption of eight major appliances. Overall, the product had good performance in disaggregating the energy consumption of the electric water heaters, which included both electric resistance and heat-pump water heaters, but only a fair accuracy with refrigerators, dryers, and air conditioners. The performance was poor for cooking equipment, furnace fans, clothes washers, and dishwashers. Moreover, the product was often unable to detect major loads in homes. Typically, two or more appliances were not detected in a home. At least two dryers, furnace fans, and air conditioners went undetected across the eight homes. On the other hand, the dishwasher was detected in all homes where available or monitored. The key findings were qualitatively compared to those of past field evaluations. Potential areas for improvement in NILM product performance were determined along with areas where complementary technologies may be able to aid in load-disaggregation applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23198253","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]],"date-time":"2023-10-05T09:14:22Z","timestamp":1696497262000},"page":"8253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["A Field Study of Nonintrusive Load Monitoring Devices and Implications for Load Disaggregation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Ebony","family":"Mayhorn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Butzbaugh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1260-2151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alan","family":"Meier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Mayhorn, E.T., Sullivan, G.P., Petersen, J., Butner, R.S., and Johnson, E.M. (2016, January 21\u201326). Load Disaggregation Technologies: Real World and Laboratory Performance. Proceedings of the ACEEE 2016 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Pacific Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1265","DOI":"10.1002\/widm.1265","article-title":"Performance evaluation in non-intrusive load monitoring: Datasets, metrics, and tools\u2014A review","volume":"8","author":"Pereira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Data Min. Knowl. Discov."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parson, O., Fisher, G., Hersey, A., Batra, N., Kelly, J., Singh, A., Knottenbelt, W., and Rogers, A. (2015, January 14\u201316). Dataport and NILMTK: A Building Data Set Designed for Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing (GlobalSIP), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GlobalSIP.2015.7418187"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reinhardt, A., and Klemenjak, C. (2020, January 22\u201326). How Does Load Disaggregation Performance Depend on Data Characteristics? Insights from a Benchmarking Study. Proceedings of the Eleventh ACM International Conference on Future Energy Systems, E-Energy \u201920, Virtual Event, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3396851.3397691"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayhorn, E.T., Sullivan, G.P., Butner, R.S., Hao, H., and Baechler, M.C. (2015). Characteristics and Performance of Existing Load Disaggregation Technologies.","DOI":"10.2172\/1203912"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"McWilliams, J., Getachew, L., and Dyson, C. (2022, January 21\u201326). At Long Last: Realizing the Promise of Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring. Proceedings of the ACEEE 2022 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Pacific Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2021.111308","article-title":"Practical Limits to the Use of Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring in Commercial Buildings","volume":"251","author":"Meier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-7788(95)00958-2","article-title":"Non-Intrusive Electrical Load Monitoring in Commercial Buildings Based on Steady-State and Transient Load-Detection Algorithms","volume":"24","author":"Norford","year":"1996","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Batra, N., Parson, O., Berges, M., Singh, A., and Rogers, A. (2014). A Comparison of Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring Methods for Commercial and Residential Buildings. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, A., Sinha, A., Saidi, A., Trinkl, C., and Z\u00f6rner, W. (2020, January 18). NILM Based Energy Disaggregation Algorithm for Dairy Farms. Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring, Virtual Event, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3427771.3427846"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Pecan Street Smart Grid Demonstration Project (2015, August 26). Setting the Benchmark for Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring: A Comprehensive Assessment of AMI-Based Load Disaggregation. Available online: https:\/\/www.pecanstreet.org\/dataport\/papers\/."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"White, B., and Esser, M. (2016, February 07). Residential Disaggregation\u2014Final Report. NegaWatt Consulting, Inc.. Available online: http:\/\/www.etcc-ca.com\/sites\/default\/files\/reports\/et13sdg1031-residential_disaggregation.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Butzbaugh, J.B., Mayhorn, E.T., and McNary, B. (2019, January 20\u201322). Residential Electricity End-use Disaggregation Using Whole Home Disaggregation Technologies. Proceedings of the International Energy Program Evaluation Conference, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, M., Shao, S., Wang, X., Zhu, Z., and Hu, F. (2022). Deep Learning-Based Non-Intrusive Commercial Load Monitoring. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145250"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8253\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:01:29Z","timestamp":1760130089000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8253"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]]},"references-count":14,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s23198253"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23198253","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]]}}}