{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T16:36:44Z","timestamp":1778344604820,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,7]],"date-time":"2023-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696636800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2021YFC3090303"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFC3090303"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2021YFC3090304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFC3090304"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper describes the development of a new 3D ground-penetrating radar (GPR) acquisition and control technology for road underground diseases with dual-band antenna arrays. The 3D GPR system can be mounted on a vehicle-loading device and used by vehicles to detect road underground diseases at regular speeds. Compared with existing 3D GPR systems, this new type of 3D GPR has the following design features: it has dual-band antenna arrays, including a 16-channel 400 MHz antenna array and an 8-channel 200 MHz antenna array, which not only improves the detection efficiency, but also effectively balances the detection depth and detection resolution. A novel antenna switching method for time division step multiplexing (TDSM) is realized via field programmable gate array (FPGA), which not only avoids the crosstalk of antenna echo signals of different frequencies, but also ensures the interval of the same antenna working time. By combining the advantages of the FPGA and micro-control unit (MCU), and utilizing the high-speed transmission of the network port, the high-speed real-time transmission of the 3D GPR echo data is achieved. Finally, the integration of all software and hardware verified the correctness of the system, with good results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23198301","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,9]],"date-time":"2023-10-09T06:16:48Z","timestamp":1696832208000},"page":"8301","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Research on Development 3D Ground Penetrating Radar Acquisition and Control Technology for Road Underground Diseases with Dual-Band Antenna Arrays"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Liang","family":"Fang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Electronic and Information Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Electronic and Information Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1954-2374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maoxuan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Electronic and Information Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fengyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Electronic and Information Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solla, M., P\u00e9rez-Gracia, V., and Fontul, S. (2021). A Review of GPR Application on Transport Infrastructures: Troubleshooting and Best Practices. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040672"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"4413","article-title":"Technique for Detecting Subsurface Cavities of Urban Road Using Multichannel Ground-penetrating Radar Equipment","volume":"32","author":"Minkyo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.381","article-title":"Efficient, large-scale archaeological prospection using a true three-dimensional ground-penetrating Radar Array system","volume":"17","author":"Trinks","year":"2010","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabry\u015b, M., and Ortyl, A. (2020). Georeferencing of Multi-Channel GPR\u2014Accuracy and Efficiency of Mapping of Underground Utility Networks. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12182945"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.1870","article-title":"Evaluation of the benefits for mapping faint archaeological features by using an ultra-dense ground-penetrating-radar antenna array","volume":"29","author":"Linck","year":"2022","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.1426","article-title":"The STREAM X Multichannel GPR System: First Test at Vieil-Evreux (France) and Comparison with Other Geophysical Data","volume":"19","author":"Novo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Wu, W., Gu, X., Li, S., Wang, L., and Zhang, T. (2021). Application of Combining YOLO Models and 3D GPR Images in Road Detection and Maintenance. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13061081"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00e9robert, X., Baltazart, V., Simonin, J.M., Todkar, S.S., Norgeot, C., and Hui, H.Y. (2021). GPR Monitoring of Artificial Debonded Pavement Structures throughout Its Life Cycle during Accelerated Pavement Testing. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13081474"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eide, E., Valand, P.A., and Sala, J. (2014). Ground-Coupled Antenna Array for Step-Frequency GPR, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICGPR.2014.6970527"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"WB25","DOI":"10.1190\/geo2020-0384.1","article-title":"Detection of road cavities in urban cities by 3D ground-penetrating radar","volume":"86","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Feng, Y., Quansheng, Z., and Pengyue, W. (2009). Research Ground Penetrating Radar Technologies for Roadbed, China Communications Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulpa, K., and Maslikowski, L. (2018). Detection Range Limitation in MIMO and SISO Noise Radar, Warsaw University of Technology.","DOI":"10.23919\/MIKON.2018.8405259"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallagher, K.A., Mazzaro, G.J., Martone, A.F., Sherbondy, K.D., and Narayanan, R.M. (2016). Derivation and Validation of the Nonlinear Radar Range Equation, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2224478"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6571","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2018.2840511","article-title":"Geometric Power Fall-Off in Radar Sounding","volume":"56","author":"Haynes","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"611","article-title":"Horizontal resolution in a non-destructive shallow GPR survey: An experimental evaluation","volume":"41","year":"2008","journal-title":"NDT E Int. Indep. Nondestruct. Test. Eval."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2134\/ael2016.01.0002","article-title":"Monitoring Infiltration Process Seamlessly Using Array Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"1","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agric. Environ. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"WB109","DOI":"10.1190\/geo2020-0590.1","article-title":"Estimating infiltration front depth using time-lapse multioffset gathers obtained from ground-penetrating-radar antenna array","volume":"86","author":"Saito","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, Z., Wu, S., Meng, S., Chen, J., Fang, G., and Yin, H. (2012). Implementation of the UWB Radar with Two Transmitting and Four Receiving Channels Based on FPGA, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMCCC.2012.244"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7422","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2020.2984415","article-title":"A Highly Digital Multiantenna Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) System","volume":"69","author":"Srivastav","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2021.3078003","article-title":"Statistical Evaluation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Timing Jitter in Equivalent-Time Sampling Signals","volume":"70","author":"Takahashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2010.2098844","article-title":"Design of a Novel Ultrawideband Digital Receiver for Pulse Ground-Penetrating Radar","volume":"8","author":"Ye","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4383","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2013.2259787","article-title":"Compensation of Time-Division Multiplexing Distortion in Switched Antenna Arrays With a Single RF Front-End and Digitizer","volume":"61","author":"Henault","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, C., Zhang, D., Zhang, J., and Wu, W. (2014). A Novel Single RF Channel Scheme for Smart Antenna Based on Optical Delay Lines, IEICE.","DOI":"10.1109\/MWP.2014.6994531"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1","article-title":"Towards High-Resolution Imaging with Photonics-Based Time Division Multiplexing MIMO Radar","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3257","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2022.3169205","article-title":"A High-Performance UWB Gaussian Pulse Generator: Analysis and Design","volume":"70","author":"Feghhi","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2289","DOI":"10.1002\/mop.28581","article-title":"Low-ringing and reduced-cost step recovery diode based UWB pulse generators for GPR applications","volume":"56","author":"Kamal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/20167901036","article-title":"Research and Development of the Antenna Array for Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"79","author":"EBalzovsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"Matec Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, X., Yang, Y., Wen, Z., Wei, S., Zhang, J., Liu, J., Li, H., Tian, H., and Liu, G. (2023). 3D-GPR-RM: A Method for Underground Pipeline Recognition Using 3-Dimensional GPR Images. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13137540"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8301\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:02:35Z","timestamp":1760130155000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/19\/8301"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,7]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s23198301"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23198301","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,7]]}}}