{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T14:14:13Z","timestamp":1782742453437,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]],"date-time":"2023-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697155200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Defense Acquisition Program Administration","award":["UD200043CD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD200043CD"]}]},{"name":"Defense Acquisition Program Administration","award":["IITP-2023-2020-0-01612"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IITP-2023-2020-0-01612"]}]},{"name":"Grand Information Technology Research Center","award":["UD200043CD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD200043CD"]}]},{"name":"Grand Information Technology Research Center","award":["IITP-2023-2020-0-01612"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IITP-2023-2020-0-01612"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper addresses the problem of tracking a high-speed ballistic target in real time. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) can be a solution to overcome the motion of the ballistic target and the nonlinearity of the measurement model. However, in general, particle swarm optimization requires a great deal of computation time, so it is difficult to apply to realtime systems. In this paper, we propose a parallelized particle swarm optimization technique using field-programmable gate array (FPGA) to be accelerated for realtime ballistic target tracking. The realtime performance of the proposed method has been tested and analyzed on a well-known heterogeneous processing system with a field-programmable gate array. The proposed parallelized particle swarm optimization was successfully conducted on the heterogeneous processing system and produced similar tracking results. Also, compared to conventional particle swarm optimization, which is based on the only central processing unit, the computation time is significantly reduced by up to 3.89\u00d7.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23208456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,14]],"date-time":"2023-10-14T14:59:59Z","timestamp":1697295599000},"page":"8456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Parallelized Particle Swarm Optimization on FPGA for Realtime Ballistic Target Tracking"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Juhyeon","family":"Park","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi 39177, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2962-3474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heoncheol","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of IT Convergence Engineering, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi 39177, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyuck-Hoon","family":"Kwon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PGM R&D Lab, LIGNEX1, Seongnam 13488, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yeji","family":"Hwang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PGM R&D Lab, LIGNEX1, Seongnam 13488, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wonseok","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PGM R&D Lab, LIGNEX1, Seongnam 13488, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1849174","article-title":"Missile guidance and control systems","volume":"57","author":"Siouris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. 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