{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T16:31:22Z","timestamp":1786638682096,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":138,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]],"date-time":"2023-10-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697760000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DTP"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DTP"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Indoor localization is a key research area and has been stated as a major goal for Sixth Generation (6G) communications. Indoor localization faces many challenges, such as harsh wireless propagation channels, cluttered and dynamic environments, non-line-of-sight conditions, etc. There are various technologies that can be applied to address these issues. In this paper, four major technologies for implementing an indoor localization system are reviewed: Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), Ultra-Wide Bandwidth Radio (UWB), Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), and Inertial Measurement Units (IMU). Sections on Data Fusion (DF) and Machine Learning (ML) have been included as well due to their key role in Indoor Positioning Systems (IPS). These technologies have been categorized based on the techniques that they employ and the associated errors in localization. A brief comparison between these technologies is made based on specific performance metrics. Finally, the limitations of these techniques are identified to aid future research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23208598","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]],"date-time":"2023-10-20T07:25:22Z","timestamp":1697786722000},"page":"8598","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":101,"title":["On Indoor Localization Using WiFi, BLE, UWB, and IMU Technologies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0575-0945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel","family":"Leitch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3957-5341","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qasim","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3860-1576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Waqas","family":"Abbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1QU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maryam","family":"Hafeez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5091-2567","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pavlos","family":"Lazaridis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pradorn","family":"Sureephong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Arts, Media and Technology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Temitope","family":"Alade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2632427","article-title":"Recent Advances in Indoor Localization: A Survey on Theoretical Approaches and Applications","volume":"19","author":"Yassin","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. 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