{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T15:20:17Z","timestamp":1778167217131,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,30]],"date-time":"2023-10-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001665","name":"Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ANR-20-CE19-0016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-20-CE19-0016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hydrotherapy has been utilized in horse rehabilitation programs for over four decades. However, a comprehensive description of the swimming cycle of horses is still lacking. One of the challenges in studying this motion is 3D underwater motion capture, which holds potential not only for understanding equine locomotion but also for enhancing human swimming performance. In this study, a marker-based system that combines underwater cameras and markers drawn on horses is developed. This system enables the reconstruction of the 3D motion of the front and hind limbs of six horses throughout an entire swimming cycle, with a total of twelve recordings. The procedures for pre- and post-processing the videos are described in detail, along with an assessment of the estimated error. This study estimates the reconstruction error on a checkerboard and computes an estimated error of less than 10 mm for segments of tens of centimeters and less than 1 degree for angles of tens of degrees. This study computes the 3D joint angles of the front limbs (shoulder, elbow, carpus, and front fetlock) and hind limbs (hip, stifle, tarsus, and hind fetlock) during a complete swimming cycle for the six horses. The ranges of motion observed are as follows: shoulder: 17 \u00b1 3\u00b0; elbow: 76 \u00b1 11\u00b0; carpus: 99 \u00b1 10\u00b0; front fetlock: 68 \u00b1 12\u00b0; hip: 39 \u00b1 3\u00b0; stifle: 68 \u00b1 7\u00b0; tarsus: 99 \u00b1 6\u00b0; hind fetlock: 94 \u00b1 8\u00b0. By comparing the joint angles during a swimming cycle to those observed during classical gaits, this study reveals a greater range of motion (ROM) for most joints during swimming, except for the front and hind fetlocks. This larger ROM is usually achieved through a larger maximal flexion angle (smaller minimal angle of the joints). Finally, the versatility of the system allows us to imagine applications outside the scope of horses, including other large animals and even humans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23218832","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,30]],"date-time":"2023-10-30T13:26:55Z","timestamp":1698672415000},"page":"8832","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Development of a Methodology for Low-Cost 3D Underwater Motion Capture: Application to the Biomechanics of Horse Swimming"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4489-7123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chlo\u00e9","family":"Giraudet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de BioM\u00e9canique et BioIng\u00e9nierie (UMR CNRS 7338), Centre of Excellence for Human and Animal Movement Biomechanics (CoEMoB), Universit\u00e9 de Technologie de Compi\u00e8gne (UTC), Alliance Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, 60200 Compi\u00e8gne, France"}]},{"given":"Claire","family":"Moiroud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}]},{"given":"Audrey","family":"Beaumont","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6078-8073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pauline","family":"Gaulmin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}]},{"given":"Chlo\u00e9","family":"Hatrisse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"},{"name":"Univ Lyon, Univ Gustave Eiffel, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, LBMC UMR_T 9406, 69622 Lyon, France"}]},{"given":"Emeline","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}]},{"given":"Jean-Marie","family":"Denoix","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}]},{"given":"Khalil","family":"Ben Mansour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de BioM\u00e9canique et BioIng\u00e9nierie (UMR CNRS 7338), Centre of Excellence for Human and Animal Movement Biomechanics (CoEMoB), Universit\u00e9 de Technologie de Compi\u00e8gne (UTC), Alliance Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, 60200 Compi\u00e8gne, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3571-4244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pauline","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LIM France, Chemin Fontaine de Fanny, 24300 Nontron, France"}]},{"given":"Fabrice","family":"Audigi\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1977-1521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henry","family":"Chateau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRALE, USC 957 BPLC, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0440-4849","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric","family":"Marin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de BioM\u00e9canique et BioIng\u00e9nierie (UMR CNRS 7338), Centre of Excellence for Human and Animal Movement Biomechanics (CoEMoB), Universit\u00e9 de Technologie de Compi\u00e8gne (UTC), Alliance Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, 60200 Compi\u00e8gne, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.11.043","article-title":"3D kinematic and dynamic analysis of the front crawl tumble turn in elite male swimmers","volume":"45","author":"Puel","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. 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