{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T13:50:03Z","timestamp":1767016203639,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]],"date-time":"2023-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700006400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The transform domain provides a useful tool in the field of confidential data hiding and protection. In order to protect and transmit patients\u2019 information and competence, this study develops an amplitude quantization system in a transform domain by hiding patients\u2019 information in an electrocardiogram (ECG). In this system, we first consider a non-linear model with a hiding state switch to enhance the quality of the hidden ECG signals. Next, we utilize particle swarm optimization (PSO) to solve the non-linear model so as to have a good signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), root mean square error (RMSE), and relative root mean square error (rRMSE). Accordingly, the distortion of the shape in each ECG signal is tiny, while the hidden information can fulfill the needs of physiological diagnostics. The extraction of hidden information is reversely similar to a hiding procedure without primary ECG signals. Preliminary outcomes confirm the effectiveness of our proposed method, especially an Amplitude Similarity of almost 1, an Interval RMSE of almost 0, and SNRs all above 30.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23229199","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,16]],"date-time":"2023-11-16T08:19:43Z","timestamp":1700122783000},"page":"9199","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Patient Confidential Data Hiding and Transmission System Using Amplitude Quantization in the Frequency Domain of ECG Signals"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Shuo-Tsung","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Informatics, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Information Center, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40201, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ren-Jie","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Applied Chinese Studies, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tsung-Hsien","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bachelor\u2019s Program in Business Management, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chun-Wen","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Informatics, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Po-You","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Informatics, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kuan-Ming","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Informatics, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wan-Yu","family":"Zhong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Informatics, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-005-6126-0","article-title":"Wavelet transformation based watermarking technique for human electrocardiogram (ECG)","volume":"29","author":"Engin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. 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