{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:11:57Z","timestamp":1760134317846,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,26]],"date-time":"2023-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700956800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TED2021-131075B-I00","PID2021-127711NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-131075B-I00","PID2021-127711NB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Digital pulse shape analysis (DPSA) techniques are becoming increasingly important for the study of nuclear reactions since the development of fast digitizers. These techniques allow us to obtain the (A, Z) values of the reaction products impinging on the new generation solid-state detectors. In this paper, we present a computationally efficient method to discriminate isotopes with similar energy levels, with the aim of enabling the edge-computing paradigm in future field-programmable gate-array-based acquisition systems. The discrimination of isotope pairs with analogous energy levels has been a topic of interest in the literature, leading to various solutions based on statistical features or convolutional neural networks. Leveraging a valuable dataset obtained from experiments conducted by researchers in the FAZIA Collaboration at the CIME cyclotron in GANIL laboratories, we aim to establish a comparative analysis regarding selectivity and computational efficiency, as this dataset has been employed in several prior publications. Specifically, this work presents an approach to discriminate between pairs of isotopes with similar energies, namely, 12,13C, 36,40Ar, and 80,84Kr, using principal component analysis (PCA) for data preprocessing. Consequently, a linear and cubic machine learning (ML) support vector machine (SVM) classification model was trained and tested, achieving a high identification capability, especially in the cubic one. These results offer improved computational efficiency compared to the previously reported methodologies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23239418","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,27]],"date-time":"2023-11-27T03:48:17Z","timestamp":1701056897000},"page":"9418","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Principal Component Analysis Applied to Digital Pulse Shape Analysis for Isotope Discrimination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0871-9901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katherine","family":"Guerrero-Morej\u00f3n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Sevilla, 41092 Sevilla, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3071-9900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda","family":"Hinojo-Montero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Sevilla, 41092 Sevilla, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9406-3779","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Mu\u00f1oz-Chavero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Sevilla, 41092 Sevilla, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9720-8905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Luis","family":"Flores-Garrido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Thermal Engineering, University of Huelva, 21007 Huelva, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1304-8372","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Antonio","family":"G\u00f3mez-Gal\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Computers, and Automation, University of Huelva, 21007 Huelva, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3891-8987","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ram\u00f3n","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Carvajal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Sevilla, 41092 Sevilla, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01010","DOI":"10.1051\/epjconf\/202327501010","article-title":"Radioactive Ion Beams: Production and Experiments at INFN-LNL","volume":"275","author":"Mazzocco","year":"2023","journal-title":"EPJ Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, May 20). FAIR Accelerator. Available online: https:\/\/www.gsi.de\/en\/researchaccelerators\/fair."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2022, May 20). Eurisol. Available online: http:\/\/www.eurisol.org."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2022, May 20). National Institute for Nuclear Physics of Legnaro. Available online: http:\/\/www.lnl.infn.it\/en\/welcome-on-the-site-of-the-national-laboratories-of-legnaro."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nimb.2008.05.128","article-title":"Commissioning of the EXOTIC beam line","volume":"266","author":"Farinon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. Beam Interact. Mater. Atoms"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03548882","article-title":"Critical phenomena in nuclear fragmentation","volume":"23","author":"Bonasera","year":"2000","journal-title":"Riv. Del Nuovo C."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3390\/chips2020006","article-title":"Silicon Radiation Detector Technologies: From Planar to 3D","volume":"2","author":"Ye","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chips"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Armstrong, W.W., Burris, W., Gingrich, D.M., Green, P., Greeniaus, L.G., Hewlett, J.C., Holm, L., Mcdonald, J.W., Mullin, S., and Olsen, W.C. (1994). ATLAS: Technical Proposal for a General-Purpose pp Experiment at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, CERN."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2010.06.277","article-title":"Advances in charged particle identification techniques","volume":"628","author":"Nappi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"10","article-title":"Charged particle identification using time of flight with FAZIA","volume":"43","author":"Barlini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nuovo Cim. C"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1140\/epja\/i2014-14047-4","article-title":"The FAZIA project in Europe: R&D phase","volume":"50","author":"Bougault","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. A"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2019.03.082","article-title":"The FAZIA setup: A review on the electronics and the mechanical mounting","volume":"930","author":"Casini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0029-554X(63)90248-9","article-title":"Particle identification by pulse shape discrimination in the p-i-n type semiconductor detector","volume":"22","author":"Ammerlaan","year":"1963","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-9002(95)00488-2","article-title":"Application of the pulse-shape technique to proton-alpha discrimination in Si-detector arrays","volume":"365","author":"Pausch","year":"1995","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-9002(94)91129-0","article-title":"Particle identification in solid-state detectors by means of pulse-shape analysis\u2014Results of computer simulations","volume":"337","author":"Pausch","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nucl. Instruments Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NA6-Collaboration Presented by A. Bamberger (1981). Particle Identification Through Pulse Shape Analysis in Proportional Counters. Phys. Scr., 23, 759.","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-8949\/23\/4B\/028"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9002(02)01063-X","article-title":"Pulse shape analysis of liquid scintillators for neutron studies","volume":"490","author":"Marrone","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2014.07.054","article-title":"Digital pulse-shape analysis with a TRACE early silicon prototype","volume":"764","author":"Mengoni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9002(00)00938-4","article-title":"Particle identification in CsI(Tl) using digital pulse shape analysis","volume":"458","author":"Skulski","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"The GERDA Collaboration, Agostini, M., Allardt, M., Andreotti, E., Bakalyarov, A.M., Balata, M., Barabanov, I., Heider, M.B., Barros, N., and Baudis, L. (2013). Measurement of the half-life of the two-neutrino double beta decay of 76Ge with the GERDA experiment. J. Phys. G Nucl. Part. Phys., 40, 035110."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1140\/epjc\/s10052-022-10163-w","article-title":"Pulse shape analysis in Gerda Phase II","volume":"82","author":"Agostini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. C"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2008.12.200","article-title":"New digital techniques applied to A and Z identification using pulse shape discrimination of silicon detector current signals","volume":"600","author":"Barlini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9002(02)01273-1","article-title":"Application of digital sampling techniques to particle identification in scintillation detectors","volume":"491","author":"Bardelli","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nucl. Instruments Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01010","DOI":"10.1051\/epjconf\/20158801010","article-title":"Charged-particle flow measured with the KRATTA detector in the ASY-EOS experiment","volume":"88","author":"Kupny","year":"2015","journal-title":"EPJ Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2003.10.106","article-title":"Time measurements by means of digital sampling techniques: A study case of 100 ps FWHM time resolution with a 100 MSample\/s, 12 bit digitizer","volume":"521","author":"Bardelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2004.05.112","article-title":"Charge and current-sensitive preamplifiers for pulse shape discrimination techniques with silicon detectors","volume":"531","author":"Hamrita","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2012.01.034","article-title":"Implementation of a neural network for digital pulse shape analysis on a FPGA for on-line identification of heavy ions","volume":"674","author":"Flores","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2016.05.107","article-title":"Application of neural networks to digital pulse shape analysis for an array of silicon strip detectors","volume":"830","author":"Flores","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"06011","DOI":"10.1051\/epjconf\/201921406011","article-title":"Machine Learning based Global Particle Identification Algorithms at the LHCb Experiment","volume":"214","author":"Derkach","year":"2019","journal-title":"EPJ Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C07016","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-0221\/17\/07\/C07016","article-title":"Using machine learning for particle identification in ALICE","volume":"17","author":"Graczykowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1819","DOI":"10.1109\/23.710943","article-title":"Neural chip SAND\/1 for real time pattern recognition","volume":"45","author":"Eppler","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2022, May 20). ACQUIRIS: High-Speed ADC Cards with Dedicated FPGA Processin. Available online: https:\/\/acqiris.com\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2022, May 20). Mathwork Matlab. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/products\/matlab.html."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2022, May 20). Mathwork Statistics and Machine Learning Toolbox. Available online: https:\/\/https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/products\/statistics.html."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Goodfellow, I.J., Bengio, Y., and Courville, A. (2016). Deep Learning, MIT Press. Available online: http:\/\/www.deeplearningbook.org."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., and Tibshirani, R. (2013). An Introduction to Statistical Learning, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-7138-7"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009715923555","article-title":"A Tutorial on Support Vector Machines for Pattern Recognition","volume":"2","author":"Burges","year":"1998","journal-title":"Data Min. Knowl. Discov."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/0029-554X(71)90054-1","article-title":"Pulse shape discrimination in inorganic and organic scintillators. I","volume":"95","author":"Winyard","year":"1971","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Gloria Mart\u00ednez Vidal, M.P.F. (2006). Apuntes de Metodolog\u00eda y Tecnolog\u00eda de la Programaci\u00f3n, IS04, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike License."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/23\/9418\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:30:38Z","timestamp":1760131838000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/23\/9418"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,26]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s23239418"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23239418","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,26]]}}}