{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:41:54Z","timestamp":1760150514472,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,3]],"date-time":"2023-12-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Guangxi Science and Technology Base and Talent Project","award":["guikeAD23026230","2022GXNSFAA035627","62276072"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["guikeAD23026230","2022GXNSFAA035627","62276072"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Natural Science Foundation","award":["guikeAD23026230","2022GXNSFAA035627","62276072"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["guikeAD23026230","2022GXNSFAA035627","62276072"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["guikeAD23026230","2022GXNSFAA035627","62276072"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["guikeAD23026230","2022GXNSFAA035627","62276072"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Eye gaze can be a potentially fast and ergonomic method for target selection in augmented reality (AR). However, the eye-tracking accuracy of current consumer-level AR systems is limited. While state-of-the-art AR target selection techniques based on eye gaze and touch (gaze-touch), which follow the \u201ceye gaze pre-selects, touch refines and confirms\u201d mechanism, can significantly enhance selection accuracy, their selection speeds are usually compromised. To balance accuracy and speed in gaze-touch grid menu selection in AR, we propose the Hand-Held Sub-Menu (HHSM) technique.tou HHSM divides a grid menu into several sub-menus and maps the sub-menu pointed to by eye gaze onto the touchscreen of a hand-held device. To select a target item, the user first selects the sub-menu containing it via eye gaze and then confirms the selection on the touchscreen via a single touch action. We derived the HHSM technique\u2019s design space and investigated it through a series of empirical studies. Through an empirical study involving 24 participants recruited from a local university, we found that HHSM can effectively balance accuracy and speed in gaze-touch grid menu selection in AR. The error rate was approximately 2%, and the completion time per selection was around 0.93 s when participants used two thumbs to interact with the touchscreen, and approximately 1.1 s when they used only one finger.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23239587","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,3]],"date-time":"2023-12-03T04:59:16Z","timestamp":1701579556000},"page":"9587","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Balancing Accuracy and Speed in Gaze-Touch Grid Menu Selection in AR via Mapping Sub-Menus to a Hand-Held Device"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6633-8579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Tian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronics and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1358-839X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yulin","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Multimedia Communications and Network Technology, School of Computer, Electronics and Information, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7971-3107","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengdong","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9847-7784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaojuan","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong 999077, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yunhai","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kyt\u00f6, M., Ens, B., Piumsomboon, T., Lee, G.A., and Billinghurst, M. (2018, January 21\u201326). Pinpointing: Precise Head- and Eye-Based Target Selection for Augmented Reality. Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3173655"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacob, R.J.K. (1990, January 1\u20135). What You Look at is What You Get: Eye Movement-Based Interaction Techniques. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/97243.97246"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stellmach, S., and Dachselt, R. (2012, January 5\u201310). Look & Touch: Gaze-Supported Target Acquisition. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Austin, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2207676.2208709"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahn, S., and Lee, G. (2019, January 20\u201323). Gaze-Assisted Typing for Smart Glasses. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, New Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3332165.3347883"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, C., Hedeshy, R., MacKenzie, I.S., and Staab, S. (2020, January 25\u201330). TAGSwipe: Touch Assisted Gaze Swipe for Text Entry. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3313831.3376317"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Budhiraja, R., Lee, G.A., and Billinghurst, M. (2013, January 1\u20134). Using a HHD with a HMD for mobile AR interaction. Proceedings of the ISMAR, Adelaide, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2013.6671837"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hincapi\u00e9-Ramos, J.D., \u00d6zacar, K., Irani, P., and Kitamura, Y. (2015, January 8\u20139). GyroWand: IMU-based Raycasting for Augmented Reality Head-Mounted Displays. Proceedings of the SUI \u201915: Proceedings of the 3rd ACM Symposium on Spatial User Interaction, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2788940.2788947"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietroszek, K., Wallace, J.R., and Lank, E. (2015, January 11\u201315). Tiltcasting: 3D Interaction on Large Displays Using a Mobile Device. Proceedings of the 28th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software & Technology, Charlotte, NC, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2807442.2807471"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ha, T., and Woo, W. (2011, January 1\u20133). ARWand: Phone-Based 3D Object Manipulation in Augmented Reality Environment. Proceedings of the 2011 International Symposium on Ubiquitous Virtual Reality, Jeju, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISUVR.2011.14"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, H.N., Shi, Y., Lu, F., Yang, J., and Papangelis, K. (2016, January 3\u20134). VRMController: An Input Device for Navigation Activities in Virtual Reality Environments. Proceedings of the 15th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Virtual-Reality Continuum and Its Applications in Industry-Volume 1, Zhuhai, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/3013971.3014005"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ro, H., Chae, S., Kim, I., Byun, J., Yang, Y., Park, Y., and Han, T.D. (2017, January 5\u20138). A dynamic depth-variable ray-casting interface for object manipulation in ar environments. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Banff, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2017.8123063"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henderson, S.J., and Feiner, S. (2009, January 19\u201322). Evaluating the benefits of augmented reality for task localization in maintenance of an armored personnel carrier turret. Proceedings of the 2009 8th IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2009.5336486"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lipari, N.G., and Borst, C.W. (2015, January 23\u201324). Handymenu: Integrating menu selection into a multifunction smartphone-based VR controller. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI), Arles, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DUI.2015.7131737"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Normand, E., and McGuffin, M.J. (2018, January 16\u201320). Enlarging a Smartphone with AR to Create a Handheld VESAD (Virtually Extended Screen-Aligned Display). Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2018.00043"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grubert, J., Heinisch, M., Quigley, A., and Schmalstieg, D. (2015, January 18\u201323). MultiFi: Multi Fidelity Interaction with Displays On and Around the Body. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seoul, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1145\/2702123.2702331"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohr, P., Tatzgern, M., Langlotz, T., Lang, A., Schmalstieg, D., and Kalkofen, D. (2019, January 4\u20139). TrackCap: Enabling Smartphones for 3D Interaction on Mobile Head-Mounted Displays. Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Glasgow, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300815"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matulic, F., Ganeshan, A., Fujiwara, H., and Vogel, D. (2021, January 8\u201313). Phonetroller: Visual Representations of Fingers for Precise Touch Input with Mobile Phones in VR. Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3411764.3445583"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Sidenmark, L., and Gellersen, H. (2019, January 20\u201323). Eye & Head: Synergetic Eye and Head Movement for Gaze Pointing and Selection. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, New Orleans, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Lystb\u00e6k, M.N., Rosenberg, P., Pfeuffer, K., Gr\u00f8nb\u00e6k, J.E., and Gellersen, H. (2022). Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Association for Computing Machinery. ETRA."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hedeshy, R., Kumar, C., Menges, R., and Staab, S. (2021, January 8\u201313). Hummer: Text Entry by Gaze and Hum. Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3411764.3445501"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, C., Akbari, D., Menges, R., MacKenzie, S., and Staab, S. (2019, January 14\u201318). TouchGazePath: Multimodal Interaction with Touch and Gaze Path for Secure Yet Efficient PIN Entry. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, Suzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/3340555.3353734"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3402","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2020.3023606","article-title":"Fully-Occluded Target Selection in Virtual Reality","volume":"26","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopper, R., Bacim, F., and Bowman, D.A. (2011, January 19\u201320). Rapid and accurate 3D selection by progressive refinement. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DUI.2011.5759219"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2017.06.003","article-title":"Design and evaluation of a novel out-of-reach selection technique for VR using iterative refinement","volume":"67","author":"Mendes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Stellmach, S., and Dachselt, R. (May, January 27). Still Looking: Investigating Seamless Gaze-Supported Selection, Positioning, and Manipulation of Distant Targets. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feick, M., Bateman, S., Tang, A., Miede, A., and Marquardt, N. (2020, January 9\u201313). Tangi: Tangible proxies for embodied object exploration and manipulation in virtual reality. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), Porto de Galinhas, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR50242.2020.00042"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hettiarachchi, A., and Wigdor, D. (2016, January 7\u201312). Annexing reality: Enabling opportunistic use of everyday objects as tangible proxies in augmented reality. Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2858036.2858134"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2021, August 28). NASA TLX, Available online: https:\/\/humansystems.arc.nasa.gov\/groups\/tlx\/."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"189","article-title":"Sus: A quick and dirty\u2019usability","volume":"189","author":"Brooke","year":"1996","journal-title":"Usability Eval. Ind."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"8858886","article-title":"Towards the design of context-aware adaptive user interfaces to minimize drivers\u2019 distractions","volume":"2020","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mob. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wobbrock, J.O., Findlater, L., Gergle, D., and Higgins, J.J. (2011, January 7\u201312). The Aligned Rank Transform for Nonparametric Factorial Analyses Using Only Anova Procedures. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/1978942.1978963"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/23\/9587\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:36:52Z","timestamp":1760132212000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/23\/9587"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,3]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s23239587"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23239587","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,3]]}}}