{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T14:18:45Z","timestamp":1772461125764,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,14]],"date-time":"2023-12-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702512000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NSERC ALLRP 561048-20 Ahmad"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSERC ALLRP 561048-20 Ahmad"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AB Innovates ADVANCE 202102739A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AB Innovates ADVANCE 202102739A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Alberta Innovates","award":["NSERC ALLRP 561048-20 Ahmad"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSERC ALLRP 561048-20 Ahmad"]}]},{"name":"Alberta Innovates","award":["AB Innovates ADVANCE 202102739A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AB Innovates ADVANCE 202102739A"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The material extrusion 3D printing process known as fused deposition modeling (FDM) has recently gained relevance in the additive manufacturing industry for large-scale part production. However, improving the real-time monitoring of the process in terms of its mechanical properties remains important to extend the lifespan of numerous critical applications. To enhance the monitoring of mechanical properties during printing, it is necessary to understand the relationship between temperature profiles and ultimate tensile strength (UTS). This study uses a cyber\u2013physical production system (CPPS) to analyze the impact of four key thermal parameters on the tensile properties of polylactic acid (PLA). Layer thickness, printing speed, and extrusion temperature are the most influential factors, while bed temperature has less impact. The Taguchi L-9 array and the full factorial design of experiments were implemented along with the deposited line\u2019s local fused temperature profile analysis. Furthermore, correlations between temperature profiles with the bonding strength during layer adhesion and part solidification can be stated. The results showed that layer thickness is the most important factor, followed by printing speed and extrusion temperature, with very close influence between each other. The lowest impact is attributed to bed temperature. In the experiments, the UTS values varied from 46.38 MPa to 56.19 MPa. This represents an increase in the UTS of around 17% from the same material and printing design conditions but different temperature profiles. Additionally, it was possible to observe that the influence of the parameter variations was not linear in terms of the UTS value or temperature profiles. For example, the increase in the UTS at the 0.6 mm layer thickness was around four times greater than the increase at 0.4 mm. Finally, even when it was found that an increase in the layer temperature led to an increase in the value of the UTS, for some of the parameters, it could be observed that it was not the main factor that caused the UTS to increase. From the monitoring conditions analyzed, it was concluded that the material requires an optimal thermal transition between deposition, adhesion, and layer solidification in order to result in part components with good mechanical properties. A tracking or monitoring system, such as the one designed, can serve as a potential tool for reducing the anisotropy in part production in 3D printing systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23249833","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]],"date-time":"2023-12-18T11:28:07Z","timestamp":1702898887000},"page":"9833","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Design of Experiments to Compare the Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid Using Material Extrusion Three-Dimensional-Printing Thermal Parameters Based on a Cyber\u2013Physical Production System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Miguel","family":"Castillo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart & Sustainable Manufacturing Systems Laboratory (SMART LAB), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7807-6203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Monroy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart & Sustainable Manufacturing Systems Laboratory (SMART LAB), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9353-3380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafiq","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart & Sustainable Manufacturing Systems Laboratory (SMART LAB), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2011.11.003","article-title":"3-D Printing: The New Industrial Revolution","volume":"55","author":"Berman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bus. 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