{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T16:22:37Z","timestamp":1782577357928,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]],"date-time":"2023-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ANR within the framework of the PIA EUR DIGISPORT project","award":["ANR-18-EURE-0022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-18-EURE-0022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article focuses on the design of a sensor system for a non-planar surface, in particular a cylindrical shape, such as a kayak paddle. The main objective is to develop a piezoresistive sensor system to measure the pressure exerted by the hand on the shaft. The study begins with static characterization of the sensors, including dispersion analysis to assess their sensitivity, linearity and measurement range. A calibration process is carried out using a dedicated test bench, and an inverse viscoelastic model is used to establish an accurate relationship between the measured resistance and the corresponding pressure. The sensor system is connected to a data acquisition board equipped with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) that enables the direct conversion of analog data into digital resistance values. Furthermore, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) wireless communication is employed to facilitate data transfer to a computer, enabling a detailed pressure mapping of the kayak paddle and real-time data collection. The calibrated sensors are then tested and validated on the kayak paddle, facilitating the mapping of pressure zones on the paddle surface. This mapping provides information for locating areas of high pressure exertion during kayaker movements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24010222","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]],"date-time":"2023-12-31T06:00:21Z","timestamp":1704002421000},"page":"222","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Design and Characterization of Piezoresistive Sensors for Non-Planar Surfaces and Pressure Mapping: A Case Study on Kayak Paddle"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9482-2034","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdo-Rahmane Anas","family":"Laaraibi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechatronics, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"},{"name":"SATIE Laboratory, UMR CNRS 8029, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"},{"name":"OASIS, IETR UMR CNRS 6164, Universit\u00e9 de Rennes, 35042 Rennes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0178-9376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gurvan","family":"Jodin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechatronics, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"},{"name":"SATIE Laboratory, UMR CNRS 8029, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corentin","family":"Depontailler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechatronics, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Bideau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Movement, Sports and Health (M2S) Laboratory, EA 7470, Universit\u00e9 Rennes 2, ENS Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"},{"name":"MIMETIC Team, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, 35042 Rennes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Florence","family":"Razan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechatronics, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"},{"name":"SATIE Laboratory, UMR CNRS 8029, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Rennes, 35170 Bruz, France"},{"name":"OASIS, IETR UMR CNRS 6164, Universit\u00e9 de Rennes, 35042 Rennes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1080\/14686996.2018.1549460","article-title":"Stretchable electronics: Functional materials, fabrication strategies and applications","volume":"20","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4338","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201504244","article-title":"Flexible and Stretchable Physical Sensor Integrated Platforms for Wearable Human-Activity Monitoringand Personal Healthcare","volume":"28","author":"Trung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eml.2016.05.015","article-title":"Recent progress in flexible and stretchable piezoelectric devices for mechanical energy harvesting, sensing and actuation","volume":"9","author":"Dagdeviren","year":"2016","journal-title":"Extrem. Mech. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., and Zhang, X. (2022). A Focused Review on the Flexible Wearable Sensors for Sports: From Kinematics to Physiologies. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13081356"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2016.08.015","article-title":"Measuring muscle activities during gym exercises with textile pressure mapping sensors","volume":"38","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11918","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2927304","article-title":"Evaluating On-Water Kayak Paddling Performance Using Optical Fiber Technology","volume":"19","author":"Niu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2013.878377","article-title":"Grip pressure distributions and associated variability in golf: A two-club comparison","volume":"13","author":"Langlais","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sport. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, K.C., Huang, W.T., Xu, J.R., Huang, S.H., Tsai, C.T., Ho, W.S., and Liao, C.C. (2023). Application of the TRIZ Innovation System Method to Bicycle Handlebars. Machines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines11050507"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2174\/1875399X00801010005","article-title":"Sport Equipment Evaluation and Optimization\u2014A Review of the Relationship between Sport Science Research and Engineering","volume":"1","author":"Shan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Open Sport. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klitgaard, K.K., Rosdahl, H., Brund, R.B.K., Hansen, J., and de Zee, M. (2021). Characterization of Leg Push Forces and Their Relationship to Velocity in On-Water Sprint Kayaking. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21206790"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.05.121","article-title":"Instrumentation of a kayak paddle to investigate blade\/water interactions","volume":"13","author":"Helmer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.2014-0114","article-title":"Paddling Force Profiles at Different Stroke Rates in Elite Sprint Kayaking","volume":"31","author":"Gomes","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonaiuto, V., Gatta, G., Romagnoli, C., Boatto, P., Lanotte, N., and Annino, G. (2020). A Pilot Study on the e-Kayak System: A Wireless DAQ Suited for Performance Analysis in Flatwater Sprint Kayaks. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020542"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Nates, F.M., and Colloud, F. (July, January 29). A 6-Component paddle sensor to Estimate Kayaker\u2019s performance: Preliminary results. Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference of Biomechanics in Sports, Poitiers, France."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rohan, R., Venkadeshwaran, K., and Ranjan, P. (2023). Recent advancements of fiber Bragg grating sensors in biomedical application: A review. J. Opt.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12596-023-01134-9"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Paddlemate (2023, December 05). Performance Measurement System Specifically Developed for Paddling and Rowing Sports to Objectively Measure and Improve Performance. Available online: https:\/\/thepaddlemate.com\/."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2013.07.038","article-title":"Developing and Applying a Tri-axial Accelerometer Sensor for Measuring Real Time Kayak Cadence","volume":"60","author":"Croft","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Leap, O.G. (2023, December 13). Power Meter. Available online: http:\/\/onegiantleap.co.nz."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Hocquinghem, S. (2023, December 13). Analyser et Optimiser son Mouvement de Pagaie Avec Motionize. Available online: https:\/\/sup-passion.com\/analyser-optimiser-mouvement-pagaie-motionize\/."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Kayak, A. (2023, December 05). World Class Kayak Ergometers. Available online: https:\/\/shorturl.at\/lmoCS."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E50","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0043-100380","article-title":"The Validation of a Paddle Power Meter for Slalom Kayaking","volume":"1","author":"Macdermid","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sport. Med. Int. Open"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tornberg, A.B., H\u00e5kansson, P., Svensson, I., and Wollmer, P. (2019). Forces applied at the footrest during ergometer kayaking among female athletes at different competing levels\u2014A pilot study. BMC Sport. Sci. Med. Rehabil., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-018-0113-5"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7634","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3245822","article-title":"Flexible Dynamic Pressure Sensor for Insole Based on Inverse Viscoelastic Model","volume":"23","author":"Laaraibi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6847","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3043140","article-title":"A PCA-Based Method to Select the Number and the Body Location of Piezoresistive Sensors in a Wearable System for Respiratory Monitoring","volume":"21","author":"Raiano","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1692","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3132793","article-title":"Velostat Sensor Array for Object Recognition","volume":"22","author":"Yuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113082","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202113082","article-title":"Multifunctional Superelastic, Superhydrophilic, and Ultralight Nanocellulose-Based Composite Carbon Aerogels for Compressive Supercapacitor and Strain Sensor","volume":"32","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.130565","article-title":"Ultralight, flexible and conductive silver nanowire\/nanofibrillated cellulose aerogel for multifunctional strain sensor","volume":"424","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2022.07.188","article-title":"A resilient and lightweight cellulose\/graphene oxide\/polymer-derived multifunctional carbon aerogel generated from Pickering emulsion toward a wearable pressure sensor","volume":"628","author":"Liao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/222\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:44:46Z","timestamp":1760132686000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/222"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24010222"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24010222","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]}}}