{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T19:11:14Z","timestamp":1768590674858,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]],"date-time":"2023-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703980800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004775","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Gansu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21JR1RA202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JR1RA202"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004775","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004775","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Gansu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022QB-021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022QB-021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004775","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004775","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Gansu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31920230159"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31920230159"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004775","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Gansu Higher Education Youth Doctoral Fund Project","award":["21JR1RA202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JR1RA202"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Higher Education Youth Doctoral Fund Project","award":["2022QB-021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022QB-021"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Higher Education Youth Doctoral Fund Project","award":["31920230159"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31920230159"]}]},{"name":"the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["21JR1RA202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JR1RA202"]}]},{"name":"the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["2022QB-021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022QB-021"]}]},{"name":"the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["31920230159"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31920230159"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traditional noninvasive blood pressure measurement methods in experimental animals are time consuming and difficult to operate, particularly for large numbers of animals. In this study, the possibility of sensing fecal odor to estimate the blood pressure status of spontaneous hypertension rats (SHRs) was explored with the aim of establishing a new method for non-invasive monitoring of blood pressure. The body weight and blood pressure of SHRs kept increasing with growth, and the odor information monitored using an E-nose varied with the blood pressure status, particularly for sensors S6 and S7. The fecal information was analyzed using principal component analysis, canonical discriminant analysis and multilayer perception neural networks (MLP) to discriminate SHRs from normal ones, with a 100% correct classification rate. For better prediction of blood pressure, the model built using multiple linear regression analysis, partial least squares regression analysis and multilayer perceptron neural network analysis were used, with coefficients of determination (R2) ranging from 0.8036 to 0.9926. Moreover, the best prediction model for blood pressure was established using MLP analysis with an R2\u00ac higher than 0.91. Thus, changes in blood pressure levels can be tracked non-invasively, and normotension can be distinguished from hypertension or even at different hypertension levels based on the odor information of rat feces, providing a foundation for non-invasive health monitoring. This work might provide potential instructions for functional food research aimed at lowering blood pressure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24010238","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]],"date-time":"2023-12-31T06:00:21Z","timestamp":1704002421000},"page":"238","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Non-Invasive Blood Pressure Tracking of Spontaneous Hypertension Rats Using an Electronic Nose"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Fumei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"China-Malaysia National Joint Laboratory, Biomedical Research Center, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730030, China"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730124, China"}]},{"given":"Lijing","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China-Malaysia National Joint Laboratory, Biomedical Research Center, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730030, China"},{"name":"School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730124, China"}]},{"given":"Jia","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China-Malaysia National Joint Laboratory, Biomedical Research Center, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730030, China"},{"name":"School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730124, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaojing","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China-Malaysia National Joint Laboratory, Biomedical Research Center, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730030, China"},{"name":"School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou 730124, China"},{"name":"Gannan Yak Milk Research Institute, Gannan 747000, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"3848","article-title":"Association between hypertension and cardiovascular disease under the latest changes in blood pressure standards","volume":"49","author":"Huiyu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mod. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"e114","article-title":"Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring in Children and Adolescents: 2022 Update: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association","volume":"79","author":"Flynn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Hypertens. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.824730","article-title":"Sympathoexcitation by oxidative stress in the brain mediates arterial pressure elevation in obesity-induced hypertension","volume":"119","author":"Nagae","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000179582.42830.1d","article-title":"Improvement in blood pressure with inhibition of the epithelial sodium channel in blacks with hypertension","volume":"46","author":"Saha","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.119.13822","article-title":"New mechanism for the sex differences in salt-sensitive hypertension: The role of macula densa NOS1\u03b2-mediated tubuloglomerular feedback","volume":"75","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1097\/MNH.0000000000000791","article-title":"Updates in hypertension: New trials, targets and ways of measuring blood pressure","volume":"31","author":"Salman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"e17610","article-title":"Intraoperative Invasive Blood Pressure Monitoring and the Potential Pitfalls of Invasively Measured Systolic Blood Pressure","volume":"13","author":"Lam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpa.2014.08.001","article-title":"Measurement of blood pressure","volume":"28","author":"Saugel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"242","article-title":"Probe into using Doppler and electronic sphygmomanometer to measure ankle-brachial blood pressure","volume":"21","author":"Bin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin. Convalescent Med."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"595","article-title":"Fluid resuscitation with guidance of pulse pressure variability measured by continuous non-invasive arterial pressure monitor in postoperative hypovolemic patients: A prospective randomized controlled trial","volume":"44","author":"Yimin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Army Med. Univ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02851174","article-title":"Skin avulsion during oscillometry","volume":"2","author":"Bause","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Clin. Monit. Comput."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"19","article-title":"Accurate, reproducible measurement of blood pressure","volume":"143","author":"Campbell","year":"1990","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/S0952-8180(01)00262-8","article-title":"Blood pressure cuff compression injury of the radial nerve","volume":"13","author":"Lin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"333","article-title":"Noninvasive blood pressure measurement model based on characteristic parameters of PGG systolic upstroke waveform","volume":"39","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez, G., Howard, N., Abbott, D., Lim, K., Ward, R., and Elgendi, M. (2018). Can photoplethysmography replace arterial blood pressure in the assessment of blood pressure?. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7100316"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v22.i4.1639","article-title":"Diagnosing gastrointestinal illnesses using fecal headspace volatile organic compounds","volume":"22","author":"Chan","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17133","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-96613-z","article-title":"elegans-based chemosensation strategy for the early detection of cancer metabolites in urine samples","volume":"11","author":"Lanza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bosch, S., Wintjens, D.S., Wicaksono, A., Pierik, M., Covington, J.A., de Meij, T.G., and de Boer, N.K. (2022). Prediction of Inflammatory Bowel Disease Course Based on Fecal Scent. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22062316"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13281","article-title":"The electronic nose as a rule-out test for tuberculosis in an indigenous population","volume":"290","author":"IJdema","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100235","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202100235","article-title":"Profiles of volatile biomarkers detect tuberculosis from skin","volume":"8","author":"Vishinkin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golden, G.J., Grady, M.J., McLean, H.E., Shriner, S.A., Hartwig, A., Bowen, R.A., and Kimball, B.A. (2021). Biodetection of a specific odor signature in mallard feces associated with infection by low pathogenic avian influenza A virus. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251841"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Jes\u00fas Bele\u00f1o-S\u00e1enz, K., C\u00e1ceres-Tarazona, J.M., Nol, P., Jaimes-Mogoll\u00f3n, A.L., Gualdr\u00f3n-Guerrero, O.E., Dur\u00e1n-Acevedo, C.M., Barasona, J.A., Vicente, J., Torres, M.J., and Welearegay, T.G. (2021). Non-invasive method to detect infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in wild boar by measurement of volatile organic compounds obtained from feces with an electronic nose system. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020584"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellis, C.K., Stahl, R.S., Nol, P., Waters, W.R., Palmer, M.V., Rhyan, J.C., VerCauteren, K.C., McCollum, M., and Salman, M.D. (2014). A pilot study exploring the use of breath analysis to differentiate healthy cattle from cattle experimentally infected with Mycobacterium bovis. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0089280"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.09.047","article-title":"Exhaled breath analysis with electronic nose technology for detection of acute liver failure in rats","volume":"53","author":"Wlodzimirow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filianoti, A., Costantini, M., Bove, A.M., Anceschi, U., Brassetti, A., Ferriero, M., Mastroianni, R., Misuraca, L., Tuderti, G., and Ciliberto, G. (2022). Volatilome Analysis in Prostate Cancer by Electronic Nose: A Pilot Monocentric Study. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14122927"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verhaar, B.J.H., Prodan, A., Nieuwdorp, M., and Muller, M. (2020). Gut Microbiota in Hypertension and Atherosclerosis: A Review. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12102982"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, P., Zhu, T., Tan, Z., Chen, S., and Fang, Z. (2022). Role of Gut Microbiota in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.812303"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"347","article-title":"Research progress on the relationship between intestinal flora and its metabolites and hypertension","volume":"34","author":"Jiayuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Microecol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmz064","article-title":"The gut microbial metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide and hypertension risk: A systematic review and dose\u2013response meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Ge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, F., Chen, H., Gao, Y., An, N., Li, X., Pan, X., Yang, X., Tian, L., Sun, J., and Xiong, X. (2020). Gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids and hypertension: Mechanism and treatment. Biomed. Pharmacother., 130.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110503"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6436","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-63475-w","article-title":"Gut metagenomic and short chain fatty acids signature in hypertension: A cross-sectional study","volume":"10","author":"Gosalbes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep.-UK"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1080\/10641963.2018.1481420","article-title":"Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) increased aquaporin-2 expression in spontaneously hypertensive rats","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.119.316394","article-title":"Intestinal flora modulates blood pressure by regulating the synthesis of intestinal-derived corticosterone in high salt-induced hypertension","volume":"126","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"714","article-title":"Identification of functional effects of bovine whey protein based on odor information of mouse feces","volume":"33","author":"Ming","year":"2021","journal-title":"Zhejiang J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.11.006","article-title":"2017 ACC\/AHA\/AAPA\/ABC\/ACPM\/AGS\/APhA\/ASH\/ASPC\/NMA\/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines","volume":"71","author":"Whelton","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1050","article-title":"Chinese Clinical Practice Guidelines for Hypertension","volume":"50","author":"Jun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20201017","article-title":"Sex differences in hypertension: Lessons from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)","volume":"135","author":"Elmarakby","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20130140","article-title":"Sex and gender differences in control of blood pressure","volume":"125","author":"Maranon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1530\/acta.0.1240091","article-title":"Sexual dimorphism in renal function and hormonal status of New Zealand genetically hypertensive rats","volume":"124","author":"Ashton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"13","article-title":"Analysis on the antihypertensive effect of aerobic exercise on weight loss in young and middle-aged hypertension","volume":"7","author":"Guoying","year":"2018","journal-title":"Knowl. Cardiovasc. Dis. Prev. Treat."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2008.06.026","article-title":"Early life stress alters behavior, immunity, and microbiota in rats: Implications for irritable bowel syndrome and psychiatric illnesses","volume":"65","author":"Marchesi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jash.2017.04.013","article-title":"Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in older people in Central Africa: The EPIDEMCA study","volume":"11","author":"Pilleron","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1175","article-title":"Effects of low-intensity aerobic exercise on blood pressure and its ACE2 and Ang II levels in spontaneously hypertensive rats","volume":"42","author":"Jie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"260","article-title":"Effects of lactoferrin on blood pressure and gut microbiota in spontaneously hypertensive rats","volume":"51","author":"Jinjin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hyg. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.28446","article-title":"Electronic nose can discriminate colorectal carcinoma and advanced adenomas by fecal volatile biomarker analysis: Proof of principle study","volume":"134","author":"Larbi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Ma, Z. (2021). Study on the Regulation of Intestinal Flora Structure and Anti-Aging Effect of Whey Powder in D-Galactose-Induced Aging Mice. [Ph.D. Thesis, Gansu Agricultural University]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9249","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.161266398","article-title":"\u201cElectronic nose\u201d detects major histocompatibility complex-dependent prerenal and postrenal odor components","volume":"98","author":"Montag","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landi, F., Calvani, R., Picca, A., Tosato, M., Martone, A.M., Ortolani, E., Sisto, A., D\u2019Angelo, E., Serafini, E., and Desideri, G. (2018). Body mass index is strongly associated with hypertension: Results from the longevity check-up 7+ study. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10121976"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/238\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:45:13Z","timestamp":1760132713000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/238"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24010238"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24010238","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]]}}}